Generally, the political and
sociological concept of face has a significant role in Chinese diplomacy.
Africa China has diplomatic relations with 53 of the 54 countries which are generally recognized in Africa. The
Forum on China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC) is the primary multi-lateral coordination mechanism between African countries and China. Chinese foreign aid is a significant area of interaction within FOCAC. In addition to the mechanism of FOCAC, China engages with subregional multilateral groups in Africa, including the
Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and the
East African Community (EAC). Relations at that time were often reflective of Chinese foreign policy in general: China "began to cultivate ties and offer[...] economic, technical and military support to African countries and liberation movements in an effort to encourage
wars of national liberation and revolution as part of an international united front against both superpower". In 1965
Ben Bella was overthrown in Algeria, with a result that the Soviets gained influence in North Africa and the Middle East. Kwame Nkrumah, the most prominent leader of sub-Saharan Africa, was deposed while on a trip to China in early 1966. The new rulers shifted Ghana to the West's side of the Cold War. China originally had close ties with the
anti-apartheid and
liberation movement,
African National Congress (ANC), in
South Africa, but as China's relations with the
Soviet Union worsened and the ANC moved closer to the Soviet Union, China shifted away from the ANC towards the
Pan-Africanist Congress. In the 1960s and 1970s, Beijing's interest centered on building ideological solidarity. China adopted several principles, among them supporting the independence of African countries while investing in infrastructure projects. The
Somali Democratic Republic established good relations with the Soviet Union throughout the Cold War era. When Somalia sought to create a
Greater Somalia, it
declared war on
Ethiopia, with the aid of the Soviet Union, Somalia took
Ogaden in three months, but the Soviet Union shifted its support from Somalia to Ethiopia, and Ethiopia retook the Ogaden region. This angered
Siad Barre, and expelled all Soviet advisors and citizens from Somalia, but Somalia maintained good relations with China, which
segregated with the traditional
Soviet Communism. China and
Zaire shared a common goal in Central Africa, namely doing everything in their power to halt Soviet gains in the area. Accordingly, both Zaire and China covertly funneled aid to the
FNLA (and later,
UNITA) in order to prevent the
MPLA, who were supported and augmented by
Cuba, from coming to power. During the Cold War, a few smaller nations also entered in alliances with China, such as
Burundi under
Michel Micombero. The
political status of Taiwan has been a key political issue for the People's Republic of
China (PRC). In 1971, the support of African nations was crucial in the PRC joining the United Nations (UN), taking over the seat of the ROC on Taiwan. However, while many African countries such as
Algeria,
Egypt and
Zambia have stressed their support to the PRC's one-China policy,
Eswatini maintains relations with
Taipei. For the quest of a permanent
UN Security Council seat for Africa, Nigeria, the most populous African country, relies on Chinese support while Egypt looks to U.S. backing. In its relations with African countries, China has shown a willingness to grant diplomatic audiences at the highest levels to even delegations from the smaller African countries. By 2005, the total Sino-African trade had reached US$39.7 billion before it jumped to US$55 billion in 2006, making China the second largest trading partner of Africa after the U.S., which had trade worth US$91 billion with African nations. China also passed the traditional African economic partner and
former colonial power France, which had trade worth US$47 billion. In 2010, trade between Africa and China was worth US$114 billion and in 2011, US$166.3 billion. In the first 10 months of 2012 it was US$163.9 billion. Unconditional and low-rate credit lines (rates at 1.5% over 15 years to 20 years) have taken the place of the more restricted and conditional Western loans. Apart from peacemaking, China provides military training and equipment to a few countries, though this does not require military forces to be deployed.
Culture Africa is a host of three Chinese cultural centers. The first overseas Chinese center was opened in
Mauritius in 1988. Two other followed in Egypt and
Benin. The
Confucius Institute, which focuses on the promotion of the
Chinese language and
culture, has 20 centers distributed around 13 African countries. Historically, little is known about early African immigration to China, although there is no doubt and much consensus that the human species was originally from Africa. Due to recent developments in relations, many have been relocating for better opportunities. Places dubbed 'Little Africa' and 'Chocolate city' are increasingly receiving new immigrants, mostly Nigerians. Most of the African immigrants are concentrated in the area of
Guangzhou with an estimated number of 20,000. It is estimated that there are around 10,000 illegal African immigrants in China and police crackdowns have intensified since early 2009. In contrast, early modern Chinese immigration to the African continent is slightly better documented. In 1724, a few Chinese convicts were brought as laborers to South Africa from the
Dutch East Indies (modern-day Indonesia) by the
Dutch Empire. In the early 19th century, another wave of immigrants came to South Africa as workers brought by the
British to work in agriculture, infrastructure building and mining. In recent years, there has been an increasing presence of
Chinese in Africa. Estimates vary by source though
Xinhua, China's official news agency, states that there are no less than 750,000 Chinese nationals working or living in Africa. However, the selling of arms to some states accused by Western countries of war crimes, such as
Sudan, have prompted criticism in the West.
Criticism The Zimbabwean example is relevant. Relations between China and
Robert Mugabe's regime in
Zimbabwe have also been the focus of criticism by a few Western countries. China was accused of supplying Zimbabwe with jet fighters, vehicles and other military equipment. China declared in 2007 that it was dropping all kinds of assistance and limiting assistance to
humanitarian aid. In July 2008, Chinese diplomats pressed Mugabe to hold negotiations with Zimbabwean opposition leaders, desiring to dampen international criticism over the
2008 Zimbabwean general election amidst preparation for the Beijing Olympics. Chinese role in Africa has sparked much criticism, including accusations of
neocolonialism and racial discrimination. As a response to such criticism, China issued the ''Nine Principles to Encourage and Standardise Enterprises' Overseas Investment'', a charter and guide of conduct to Chinese companies operating abroad. Other criticism include the flooding of the African markets with low-cost Chinese-made products, thus harming the growth and the survival of local industries and businesses.
Egypt Sudan Ethiopia Somalia Tanzania Americas Latin America and the Caribbean delivered a speech at the National Congress of
Brazil, 16 July 2014 and Xi Jinping in
Argentina, 18 July 2014 Recent years have seen Beijing's growing economic and political influence in
South America and the Caribbean. During a visit to Brazil, Argentina,
Chile, and Cuba in November 2004, Chinese leader Hu Jintao announced US$100 billion worth of investment over the next decade. For instance, Cuba is turning to Chinese companies rather than Western ones to modernize its crippled transportation system at a cost of more than US$1 billion, continuing a trend of favoring the fellow communist country that has made Beijing as Cuba's second-largest trading partner after
Venezuela in 2005. In addition, China is expanding its military-to-military contacts in the region. China is training increasing numbers of Latin American and Caribbean region military personnel, mainly due to a three-year-old
U.S. law surrounding the
International Criminal Court that has led to a sharp decline in U.S.-run training programs for the region. In its relations with Latin American countries, China has shown a willingness to grant diplomatic audiences at the highest levels to even delegations from the smaller Latin American countries. These agreements are part of the basis of teaching
Mandarin Chinese language courses at the regional University. China has also expanded several levels of cooperation with the Caribbean region. China and the Government of the
Republic of Trinidad and Tobago were said to have formed an agreement where
asphalt from Trinidad and Tobago would be exported to China during its construction boom in preparation for the
2008 Summer Olympics. In exchange, China has led several construction projects in Trinidad and Tobago and the Caribbean region via Chinese owned construction companies. Trinidad and Tobago have also mooted the idea of starting direct shipments of
oil and
liquid natural gas direct from Trinidad and Tobago to China, to fuel the latter's growing need for resources to fuel their economy. Several capital-works or infrastructural projects across the Caribbean region have also been financed by the
Chinese government.
Antigua and Barbuda Both countries have established diplomatic relations.
Barbados Diplomatic relations between
Barbados and the People's Republic of China were
established on 30 May 1977. China began providing Barbados with diplomatic aide with the construction of the Sir
Garfield Sobers Gymnasium (1986), and other projects such as: construction assistance for the Sir
Lloyd Erskine Sandiford Centre (1994), and renovating
Bridgetown's Cheapside Market building (2005). In 2005, China exported US$19.19 million worth of goods, while importing only $211,000 from Barbados. who heads the embassy in
Christ Church, Barbados. Hong replaced the former Ambassador Wei Qiang in 2012. The current Barbadian Ambassador to Beijing, China is the country's former Prime Minister Sir
Lloyd Erskine Sandiford. In 2004 Barbados obtained Approved Destination Status by the government in China. Barbados and China are members of the
United Nations and the
Caribbean Development Bank. Following the
2008 Sichuan earthquake, the Barbadian prime minister visited the Chinese Embassy to personally sign the book of condolence to the nation. Over the years a number of building projects have been carried out with Chinese government assistance these include: The Garfield Sobers Gymnasium, two adjustments on the Lloyd Erskine Sandiford Centre, a Home Vegetable Growing Experimental Center, embroidery, grass weaving and feather handicraft. A consideration was also giving according to the Prime Minister of Barbados, David Thompson for China to assist with the opening of a new cruise ship facility in Barbados. Chinese Premier Wen said that China would like to join hands with Barbados in deepening cooperation in the areas of trade, tourism, architecture, and cultural exchange. China's export volume to Barbados in 1999 reached US$2,035,000, while imports from Barbados were at US$13,000. Both nations have additionally signed bilateral agreements including a
Double taxation agreement and a Reciprocal Promotion and Protection of Investments treaty. The Chinese government remains one of the main stakeholders in the Barbados-based Caribbean Development Bank (CDB), which lends to the various territories throughout the Caribbean region.
Cuba China-Cuban relations are based on trade, credits, and investments which have increased significantly since the 1990s. China is Cuba's second largest trading partner after Venezuela. At a ceremonial trade gathering in
Havana in early 2006, China's ambassador to Cuba said "Our government has a firm position to develop trade co-operation between our countries. The policy, the orientation, has been determined. What's left is the work to complete our plans." Bilateral trade between China and Cuba in 2005 totaled US$777 million, of which US$560 million were Chinese exports to Cuba. China is sending a growing amount of durable goods to Cuba. Chinese goods have become the primary tools both in the planned revitalization of
Cuban transport infrastructure and in the "Energy Revolution" of 2006 to provide electricity to the Cuban populace.
Sinopec, the Chinese state
oil company, has an agreement with state-owned
Cupet (Cuba Petroleum) to develop oil resources. As of mid-2008, SINOPEC had done some seismic testing for oil resources on the island of Cuba, but no drilling. The company also has a contract for joint production in one of Cuba's offshore areas of high potential yield, off the coast of
Pinar del Río, but had done no off-shore drilling as of mid-2008. Great Wall Drilling has provided
drilling rigs for
oil exploration on Cuba's north coast.
El Salvador Honduras Venezuela United States Once the UN issue was resolved, relations with the United States began to thaw. In 1972, President
Richard Nixon visited China. China backed away from support of North Vietnam in the Vietnam War. In late 1978, China became concerned over Vietnam's efforts to establish open control over
Laos and
Cambodia. In response to the Soviet-backed Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia, China fought an inconclusive border war with Vietnam (February–March 1979). Formal diplomatic relations were established with the U.S. in 1979, and the two nations have experienced more than a quarter century of antagonistic relations over such issues as Taiwan,
balance of trade,
intellectual property rights,
nuclear proliferation,
currency intervention,
securities fraud and
human rights.
Asia Generally speaking, China's relations with Central and South Asia have resulted in steadily increasing interdependence and a modestly improved regional integration.
Arab World . In 2004, over 80 percent of Chinese
crude oil imports transited the
Strait of Malacca, with less than 2 percent transiting the
Lombok Strait. Sino-Arab relations have extended historically back to the first
Caliphate, with important trade routes, and good diplomatic relations. Following the age of
Imperialism, the Sino-Arab relations were halted for several centuries, until both gained independence in the 19th and 20th century. Modern relations are evolving into a new era, with the
China-Arab States Cooperation Forum (CASCF) as the major multi-lateral cooperation mechanism between China and the Arab League states. On 10 March 2023, Saudi Arabia and Iran announced that they had agreed to normalize their relations in a deal brokered by China. Within the first ten years of the BRI, China signed a
memorandum of understanding with every Arab country.
Medieval Era During the
Tang dynasty, when relations with Arabs were first established, the Chinese called Arabs "Dàshí" (). In modern Chinese, Dashi means Great Food. The modern term for Arab is "Ālābó" (). The Arab Islamic
Caliph Uthman Ibn Affan (r. 644–656) sent an embassy to the Tang court at Chang'an. Although the Tang Dynasty and the
Abbasid Caliphate had
fought at Talas, on 11 June 758, an
Abbasid embassy arrived at Chang'an simultaneously with the Uyghurs in order to pay tribute. The Caliphate was called "Dàshíguó" (). An Arab envoy presented horses and a girdle to the Chinese in 713, but he refused to pay homage to the Emperor, said, he said "In my country we only bow to God never to a Prince". The first thing the court was going to do was to murder the envoy, however, a minister intervened, saying "a difference in the court etiquette of foreign countries ought not to be considered a crime." A second Arab envoy performed the required rituals and paid homage to the Emperor in 726 A.D. He was gifted with a "purple robe and a girdle". There was a controversy between the Arab ambassadors and
Uyghur Khaganate ambassadors over who should go first into the Chinese court, they were then guided by the Master of Ceremonies into two different entrances. Three Da shi ambassadors arrived at the Tang court in 198 A.D. A war which was raging between the Arabs and Tibetans from 785 to 804 benefited the Chinese. According to Professor Samy S. Swayd,
Fatimid missionaries made their
Dawah in China during the reign of
Al-Aziz Billah.
Trade In Islamic times Muslims from Arabia traded with China. For instance, China imported frankincense from southern Arabia via
Srivijaya.
20th century China under the
Kuomintang had established relations with
Egypt and
Saudi Arabia in the 1930s. The Chinese government sponsored students like
Wang Jingzhai and
Muhammad Ma Jian to go the
Al-Azhar University to study. Pilgrims also made the
Hajj to
Mecca from China. Chinese Muslims were sent to Saudi Arabia and Egypt to denounce the Japanese during the
Second Sino-Japanese War. In 1939
Isa Yusuf Alptekin and Ma Fuliang were sent by the Kuomintang to
Middle Eastern countries such as Egypt,
Turkey, and
Syria to gain support during the
Second Sino-Japanese War. The Egyptian president
Gamal Abdel Nasser cut off diplomatic relations with the Republic of China and established ties with the People's Republic of China in 1956. China accelerated its programme of fostering diplomatic relations throughout the Middle East from 1977 onwards as the country took
a more pragmatic approach to geopolitics. In 1990, Saudi Arabia decided to cut ties with the ROC, with which it had maintained a formal relationship since 1944 (making it Taiwan's longest-standing partner in the Arab world). With the Saudi move, all Arab states had come to recognize the People's Republic of China as the legitimate Chinese government. The relations between China and the
Arab League as an organization officially started in 1956. However, it was in 1993, when the Arab League opened its first office in China, that former Secretary General Essmat Abdel Megeed went to an official visit to Beijing. In 1996, the Chinese leader
Jiang Zemin visited the Arab League headquarters during his passage in
Cairo, becoming the first Chinese leader to be hosted by the organization. China has continued to pay greater attention to the Middle East since the 2000s. With China, Middle Eastern countries benefit from a potential investment source and long-term buyer of oil and gas without the political complications that come with dealing with the
United States. These principles are a conservative interpretation of the
Westphalian norms of state sovereignty. Other issues which have emerged following the Arab Spring include the
Syrian civil war, and issues in Iraq, Libya, Yemen, Sudan, and Somalia. In the opening ceremony of the Forum in 2004, Chinese foreign minister
Li Zhaoxing said that the
Arab world is an important force in the international arena, and that China and Arab countries enjoy a time-honored friendship, remarking "Similar histories, common objectives and wide-ranging shared interests have enabled the two sides to strengthen cooperation," he said. "No matter how the international situation changes, China has always been the sincere friend of the Arab world." "The PRC has submitted four proposals. First, maintaining mutual respect, equitable treatment and sincere cooperation on the political front. Second, promoting economic and trade ties through cooperation in investment, trade, contracted projects, labor service, energy, transportation, telecommunications, agriculture, environmental protection and information. Third, expanding cultural exchanges. Finally, conducting personnel training," he said. Arab foreign ministers attending the meeting agreed that the formal inauguration of the forum was a significant event in the history of Arab ties with China. They submitted a variety of proposals on promoting Sino-Arab friendship and cooperation. At the conclusion of the meeting, Li and Arab League Secretary General
Amr Moussa signed a declaration and an action plan for the forum. Li arrived in
Cairo on Sunday evening for a three-day visit to Egypt, the last leg of a
Middle East tour that has taken him to Saudi Arabia,
Yemen and
Oman.
The Joint Communiqué One of the major Joint Projects involves the Environment, the AL and PRC signed the Executive Program of the Joint Communiqué between the Environmental Cooperation for 2008–2009 The League of Arab States and the Government of People's Republic of China signed the Joint Communiqué on Environmental Cooperation (referred to as the Joint Communiqué) on 1 June 2006. The Joint Communiqué is an important instrument that aims to deepen the regional environmental partnership between the two parties. Since the signing of the Joint Communiqué, the
Chinese Ministry of Commerce and the
Chinese Ministry of Environmental Protection have co-organized two environmental protection training courses in June 2006 and June 2007 respectively, in China. This treaty was signed by Arab Ambassador
Ahmed Benhelli Under secretary general Am Moussa's Approval, and
Xu Qinghua Director General Department for International Cooperation, Ministry of Environmental Protection.
West Asia In 2016, Xi Jinping stated that China would take a "Three Nos" position towards the Middle East: (1) not seeking proxies, (2) not seeking spheres of influence, and (3) not seeking to fill a power vacuum. China proposes "peace through development" in the Middle East, an approach that Xi articulated during a visit to
Arab League headquarters. In the years after the independence of the Central Asian countries, China negotiated bilaterally to resolve its borders with them individually. Ultimately, China obtained territory significantly less than it had originally claimed. China is one of the main energy partners of the Central Asian countries. Chinese oil companies have invested into Kazakh oil fields, In addition to bolstering trade ties, Beijing has contributed aid and funding to the region's countries. The
Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, of which China is a founding member, is also becoming increasingly important in Central Asian security and politics. Many observers believe that beyond fostering good-neighborly relations, China is also concerned with securing its borders as it emerges as a world power. The
terrorist attacks of 11 September changed China's view of Central Asia, causing China to pay increasing attention to potential concerns of terrorism, separatism, and extremism arising from the region. One of China's main interests in Central Asia therefore is stability in Xinjiang, which shares a border with three Central Asian countries.
China plus Central Asia (also depicted as China + Central Asia; C+C5) is a meeting of the Foreign Ministers' of China and Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan. It was started in 2020. In 2023, Xi Jinping and leaders of the five Central Asian countries held the
China-Central Asia Summit in
Xi'an, and the summit resulted in 54 agreements, 19 new cooperation mechanisms and platforms, and nine multilateral documents.
East Asia As of 2022, the general trend is that China and the other East Asian countries have increased their ties with each other, especially in economic matters and in conducting joint military exercises. Trade with China comprised 39% of all East Asia regional trade as of 2020. However, in the early 2010s, relations cooled once more, with Japan accusing China of withholding its reserves of valuable
rare earth elements.
North Korea in Pyongyang, 2010China had long been a close ally of North Korea but also found a valuable trading partner in South Korea and eventually took a role in the early 2000s as a proponent of "
six-party talks" (North Korea, South Korea, Russia, Japan, the U.S., and China) to resolve tensions on the
Korean Peninsula. China was instrumental at brokering talks with North Korea over its nuclear program, and in 2003, there was a concerted effort by China to improve relations with the ASEAN countries and form a common East Asian market. These foreign policy efforts have been part of a general foreign policy initiative known as
China's peaceful rise. On 15 November 2005, Hu Jintao visited Seoul and spoke of the importance of both countries' contributions for regional peace and cooperation in economic development. Hu's critics say that his government was overly aggressive in asserting its new power, overestimated its reach, and raised the ire of the United States and its allies who are close in proximity to China, such as India, and Japan.
South Korea Diplomatic relations between the People's Republic of China and
South Korea were formally established on 24 August 1992. Throughout the 1950s, 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s the PRC recognized only North Korea while South Korea in turn recognized only the
Republic of China in Taiwan. South Korea was the last Asian country to establish relations with the People's Republic of China. In recent years, China and South Korea have endeavored to boost their strategic and cooperative partnership in numerous sectors, as well as promoting high level relationship. Trade, tourism and multiculturalism, in specific, have been the most important factors of strengthening two neighbouring countries cooperative partnership. While the dispute of
THAAD had initiated conflicts between the two countries in various sectors, at the end of October 2017, the two countries ended the 1-year-long diplomatic dispute and have been working swiftly to get their relationship back on track since, strengthening exchanges and cooperation between each other, creating harmony of interests, and agreed to resume exchanges and cooperation in all areas. All economic and cultural bans from China towards South Korea were also lifted as a result, with political and security cooperation, businesses and cultural exchanges between the two countries getting back to healthy state. Upon resumption of relationship, China and South Korea have been organizing presidential and governmental visits, working together on the Korean Peninsula, assisting with the development of other countries, and cooperating in numerous areas.
South Asia China's current trade volume with all
South Asian nations reaches close to $187.554 billion a year. Beijing runs trade surpluses with many partners, including Pakistan, Bangladesh,
Nepal and
Sri Lanka. Fast on the heels of the U.S. offer of nuclear power plants to India, Chinese Authorities have helped Pakistan establish nuclear power plants of its own to meet its nuclear needs, which officially consist primarily of energy requirements, although, as per certain perspectives, this could be used for Pakistani and Chinese military, quite possibly defence, purposes. China also lends to and invests in South Asian nations with low-cost financial capital, to help their development sector, especially with the current economically struggling countries of Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Nepal
Bangladesh Early relations with the People's Republic of China were cold due to China's veto at the United Nations Security Council to block Bangladesh's accession to the United Nations. Lately however China has made efforts to improve relations with many of its neighbors. Trade with China reached a record level in 2006 of $3.2 billion under the auspices of the
Asia-Pacific Trade Agreement (AFTA). The trade balance between the two countries are in China's favor. China has also officially agreed to helping Bangladesh on developing their nuclear power plant. Bangladesh has also signed the Apsco convention with six other nations to form a pact with China on space exploration. Defense and trade ties between the two countries have been strong, with 72% of military arms purchased by Bangladesh from 2019 to 2023 coming from China. In June 2014, Bangladesh and China announced a Chinese Economic Zone in Anwara, Chattogram, but progress has stalled for over a decade due to unresolved commercial and contractual disputes with Chinese developers. Despite land acquisition and partial infrastructure, no factories have been established, highlighting slow Chinese investment and challenges in project control.
India in India. Bilateral trade between the two countries surpassed US$60 billion by 2010 making China the single largest trading partner of India. Despite lingering suspicions remaining from the 1962
Sino-Indian War, 1967
Nathu La and Cho La clashes and continuing boundary disputes over
Ladakh, Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh, Sino-Indian relations have improved gradually since 1988. Both countries have sought to reduce tensions along the frontier, expand trade and cultural ties, and normalize relations. A series of high-level visits between the two nations have helped improve relations. In December 1996, General Secretary
Jiang Zemin visited India during a tour of South Asia. While in New Delhi, he signed with the Indian Prime Minister a series of confidence-building measures for the disputed borders. Sino-Indian relations suffered a brief setback in May 1998 when the Indian Defence minister justified the country's nuclear tests by citing potential threats from China. However, in June 1999, during the
Kargil crisis, then-External Affairs Minister
Jaswant Singh visited Beijing and stated that India did not consider China a threat. By 2001, relations between China and India were on the mend, and the two sides handled the move from
Tibet to India of the 17th
Karmapa in January 2000 with delicacy and tact. Since 2004, the economic rise of both China and India has also helped forge closer relations between the two. Sino-Indian trade reached US$36 billion in 2007, making China the single largest trading partner of India. The increasing economic reliance between China and India has also brought the two nations closer politically, with both China and India eager to resolve their boundary dispute. They have also collaborated on several issues ranging from
WTO's
Doha round in 2008 to regional free trade agreement. Similar to
Indo-US nuclear deal, China and India have also agreed to cooperate in the field of civilian
nuclear energy. However, China's economic interests have clashed with those of India. Both the countries are the largest investors in Africa and have competed for control over its large natural resources. China and India agreed to take bilateral trade up to US$100 billion on a recent visit by Wen Jiabao to India. After years of competition, general distrust between the two, and several border conflicts, relations in the 21st century between the world's two most populous states stabilized, only for relations to suffer a massive hit in the late 2010s due to multiple border standoffs that resulted in deaths on both sides. While both countries have doubled their economic trade in the past few years, and China became India's largest trading partner in 2010, there is increasing unease in India regarding the perceived Chinese advantage in their trade relationship. The two countries are planning to host joint naval exercises. The dispute over
Aksai Chin (formerly a part of the Indian territory of
Ladakh) and
South Tibet (China) or
Arunachal Pradesh (India) is not settled and plagues Sino-Indian relations. While New Delhi has raised objections to Chinese military-aid to arch-rival
Pakistan and neighboring
Bangladesh, Beijing similarly objects to India's growing military collaboration with Japan, Australia and the U.S. Bilateral relations between the two became strained due to the
2017 Doklam standoff and then later by the
2020–2021 China–India skirmishes. Relations were further strained by the
COVID-19 pandemic.
Pakistan Pakistan and China have enjoyed strong relations, which encompass military, economic and diplomatic ties, since the 1960s. UK scholar Nasser Amin considers the Sino-Pak entente to be a special kind of relationship in the post-war global system, since there are no natural ties or affinities of culture, religion or ideology that have existed between Islamabad and Beijing; rather, the close relationship appears to substantiate a fundamental premise of the
Neo-Realist school of IR thought: namely, that states join in alliance with other states on the basis of power considerations, in this case a shared hostility to India. CPEC is intended to rapidly modernize Pakistani infrastructure and strengthen its economy by the construction of modern transportation networks, numerous energy projects, and
special economic zones. The CPEC will connect Pakistan with China and the Central Asian countries with highway connecting
Kashgar to
Khunjerab and
Gwadar. More recently, China has signed several free trade agreements with Pakistan as well as several bilateral trade agreements such as the Early Harvest Agreement and the establishment of a duty-free export zone (
Sust Dry Port) in Pakistan's
Gilgit-Baltistan. China continues to invest heavily into Pakistan, and is providing assistance in the development of
Gwadar Port – the country's 3rd most major port, timber transhipments from Mozambique, as well as improving infrastructure and the development of a pipeline from the said port towards China's western regions. Trade and goodwill between Pakistan and China are relatively strong due to the bordered Muslims area of
Xinjiang, who used Pakistan as a transit to
Mecca/Makkah for pilgrimage.
Pakistani students often go to China to study while Chinese workers come to Pakistan to work on infrastructure projects. Pakistan ceded a portion of
Kashmir in the 1960s. They also share the
Karakoram Highway, one of the highest paved roads in the world. Pakistani and Chinese authorities collaborated on everything from nuclear and space technology where help was provided by China to Pakistan, to cruise missile and naval technology.
Sri Lanka Southeast Asia China's geopolitical ambitions focus on Southeast Asia, where Beijing is intent upon establishing a preeminent
sphere of influence. China has pursued this ambition with a diplomatic campaign designed to bind the region to China – politically, economically, and militarily. China's
transformation into a
major economic power in the 21st century has led to an increase of foreign investments in the
bamboo network, a network of
overseas Chinese businesses operating in the markets of Southeast Asia that share common family and cultural ties. Historically, China's relations with the region has been uneasy, due to the country's involvement with the
Vietnam War, the
Malayan Communist Party during the
first and
second communist insurgencies in
Malaysia, as well as the
Communist Party of Indonesia and
30 September Movement in Indonesia. As a result, previously friendly relations with Indonesia under the
Sukarno government broke off in 1967, and were not restored until 1990, while diplomatic relations with Malaysia were not established until 1974 and in 2015 Malaysia reached a status of comprehensive strategic partnership with China. China's invasion of
Vietnam resulted in the
Sino-Vietnamese War and other border conflicts; this war caused long-lasting animosity within Vietnam against China. Relations between the two states were only normalized in 1991 as Vietnam's closest ally, the Soviet Union, collapsed. Today, Vietnam and China have a healthy trade relationship, though tensions persist over the countries' boundaries in the South China Sea, among other disputes. Despite China's support of the
Pol Pot's
Khmer Rouge regime in
Cambodia, which lasted long after its deposition, China enjoys a harmonious relationship with Cambodia. This relationship includes strong military and economic ties, with Cambodia defending China on the global stage; Cambodia's government has weak popular support, opening it to coercion by the Chinese government. China's relationship with
Singapore is good, and the latter is one of only three countries that can enjoy visa-free entry to the country, starting 17 April 2011. China is the largest trading partner of nearly all the Southeast Asian countries and one of the region's main sources of
foreign direct investment. Over the course of 2008 to 2009, China became the largest trading partner of ASEAN.
Philippines Singapore Thailand Vietnam Europe Relations with Europe, both Eastern and Western, were generally friendly in the early 21st century, with close political and trade relations with the
European Union nations being a major thrust of China's foreign policy in the 2000s. China's relationship with the Central and Eastern European Countries was generally limited during the Cold War period due to the Sino-Soviet Split and the Warsaw Pact membership of these countries. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, these countries distanced themselves from their communist pasts and oriented towards the European Union. After the
2008 financial crisis caused capital investment by traditional European economic powers to fall, China established a significant presence in Central European and Eastern European markets. The
Comprehensive Agreement on Investment, an investment agreement first proposed in 2013 and completed in 2020, was halted before its ratification after the
European Commission announced plans in 2021 to reduce dependence on China in strategic areas of the economy. The European Union has been China's most reliable partner with regard to clean energy and addressing
climate change.
Finland • China has an embassy in
Helsinki. • Finland has an embassy in Beijing and consulates-general in Hong Kong and Shanghai.
France Italy In March 2019, during Chinese leader
Xi Jinping's visit to
Italy,
China signed a
memorandum of understanding on China's
Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) with Italy. Additionally, with this memorandum, Italy became the only G7 country to join the BRI.
Russia The end of the long-held animosity between
Moscow and Beijing was marked by the visit to China by Soviet
General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev in 1989. After the 1991 demise of the
Soviet Union, China's relations with Russia and the former states of the Soviet Union became more amicable as the conflicting ideologies of the two vast nations no longer stood in the way. A new round of bilateral agreements was signed during reciprocal head of state visits. As in the early 1950s with the Soviet Union, Russia has again become an important source of
military technology for China, as well as for
raw materials and
trade. Friendly relations with Russia have been an important advantage for China, offsetting its often uneasy relations with the U.S.
Ukraine As part of the Soviet Union,
Ukraine recognized the PRC in October 1949. After
Ukraine gained independence from the Soviet Union in 1991, the two countries built formal diplomatic relations in 1992, During the
2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, China abstained in the
related UN Security Council votes condemning Russia. The Ukrainian embassy issued a statement in Chinese condemning Russia on
Weibo, which drew over 300 million views in a day. Chinese company
NetEase has published anti-war videos from Chinese in Ukraine and Ukrainians in China. However, Beijing's failure to criticise Russia increased local hostility towards stranded Chinese in Ukraine. In September 2022,
Li Zhanshu, the
third highest-ranking member of the
CCP Politburo Standing Committee, told a group of Russian legislators that the
Chinese government "understands and supports Russia...on the situation in Ukraine".
United Kingdom met with Chinese leader
Xi Jinping in Beijing, 29 January 2026 China established
diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom on 17 June 1954. The United Kingdom was the first major Western country to establish diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China. • The United Kingdom is accredited to China through its
embassy in Beijing, and
consulate generals in Guangzhou, Hong Kong, and
Shanghai. The UK governed the territories of
Hong Kong, from 1841 to 1941 and 1945 to 1997, as well as
Weihaiwei from 1898 to 1930. Both countries share common membership of the
G20, the
UNSC P5, the
United Nations, and the
World Trade Organization. Bilaterally the two countries have a Double Taxation Agreement, an Investment Agreement, and the
Sino-British Joint Declaration.
Oceania China maintains diplomatic relations with ten countries in Oceania:
Australia,
Fiji, the
Federated States of Micronesia,
Kiribati,
New Zealand,
Papua New Guinea,
Samoa, the
Solomon Islands,
Tonga and
Vanuatu whilst Taiwan has diplomatic relations with the other four. The Pacific is an area of intense and continuous diplomatic competition between the PRC and the ROC, with several countries (
Nauru,
Kiribati, Vanuatu) having switched diplomatic support from one to the other at least once. Both the PRC and the ROC provide development aid to their respective allies. The PRC has also made steps towards establishing an economic and political sphere of influence in the Pacific Islands, for instance through its "China–Pacific Islands Economic Development Forum" which was set up in 2006. As of 2019, Tonga was the only country in the Pacific that had China as its dominant creditor; the Chinese loans to Tonga were so concessional that they have been characterized as
aid.
Policy In 2003, China announced it intended to enhance its diplomatic ties with the
Pacific Islands Forum, and increase the economic aid package it provided to that organization. At the same time, Chinese delegate Zhou Whenzhong added: "[T]he PIF should refrain from any exchanges of an official nature or dialogue partnership of any form with Taiwan". In 2006, Chinese Premier
Wen Jiabao announced that China would increase its economic cooperation with Pacific Island States. The PRC would provide more economic aid, abolish tariffs for exports from the Pacific's least developed countries, annul the debt of those countries, distribute free anti-
malaria medicines, and provide training for two thousand Pacific Islander government officials and technical staff. Also in 2006, Wen became the first Chinese premier to visit the Pacific islands, which the
Taipei Times described as "a longtime diplomatic battleground for China and Taiwan". Similarly, according to
Ron Crocombe, Professor of Pacific Studies at the
University of the South Pacific, "There have been more Pacific Islands minister visits to China than to any other country". In 2007,
Xinhua, the Chinese official press agency, stated that Pacific Islands Forum member countries had "spoke[n] highly of the generous assistance China has provided to the region over the past many years and expressed the hope for a further enhanced cooperation with China". In December 2007, Dr John Lee—Visiting Fellow at the Sydney-based
Centre for Independent Studies—opined in a column for
Islands Business: :''"Why is China so interested in the Pacific? After all, despite the differences in size, population, wealth, and influence between China and islands in the region, the Chinese have literally rolled out the red carpet for Pacific leaders. Meetings between Chinese and Pacific leaders are not perfunctory 'meet and greets' in the bland boardrooms of hotels. They are often elaborate state functions with all the bells and whistles that state meetings can offer. [...] In a word, the Chinese want 'influence'. China sends more diplomats around the world than any other country. [...] In terms of the Pacific, there is a more disturbing game being played out, namely the 'chequebook diplomacy', that is taking place between China and Taiwan in their competition for diplomatic recognition at the expense of the other. Taiwan matters profoundly to China—and it is largely why China is interested in the Pacific."'' That same month, John Henderson of the
University of Canterbury stated that, in his view, many Pacific Islanders are worried "that their livelihood is being taken away by Chinese traders coming in, often getting in buying political privileges, playing a role in rigging elections". Henderson suggested that the
2006 anti-Chinese riots in Tonga and
Solomon Islands could be repeated in countries such as Fiji and Vanuatu. He added that this might lead the PRC to increase its role in the region further, in order to protect ethnic Chinese Pacific Islanders. A spokesman for the Chinese embassy in Fiji, Hu Lihua, responded by stating: "China does not pose a military threat to any other country. China opposes all forms of hegemonism and power politics and will never seek hegemony or engage in expansion." A representative of
Fiji's Chinese community similarly rejected the idea that there might be anti-Chinese riots in Fiji, and added: "The Chinese in Fiji have an excellent relationship with locals and we contribute toward the economy. We have been successful in understanding local customs. Many of us have learnt the language and have assimilated." The final report of the April 2008
Australia 2020 Summit addressed China's influence in the Pacific in the following terms: :
"It was noted that so far China did not seem interested in exporting its political values. Its interaction with the region was economically focused or motivated by rivalry winth Taiwan. :''Noting China's growing military power and its emerging role as a major aid donor in the region, participants agreed that while China's visibility had increased rapidly there remained uncertainty over what it was seeking to achieve, especially in the long term. Securing energy supplies was one obvious goal. One strand of thought that had emerged was that the Chinese themselves were not entirely clear about their aims in the region."'' In June 2008, a report from the
Lowy Institute stated that China's aid policy towards the Pacific was almost certainly aimed solely at encouraging Pacific countries not to grant diplomatic recognition to Taiwan, and that there was no sign of the PRC attempting to increase its military influence or its access to the region's natural resources.
Reuters reports that, according to the institute's findings, "China's chequebook diplomacy in the South Pacific and secrecy over its aid programme to small island nations is having a destabilising impact on the region", due to "concerns that dollar diplomacy was influencing local politics." A spokesman of the Chinese Foreign Ministry responded: "This assistance is on the basis of mutual benefit. It must help the local economy to develop and promote people's livelihoods. China would never interfere in these countries' internal affairs." In June 2009, parliamentary delegations from four Pacific Island countries were jointly received by
Wu Bangguo,
Chairman of the
Standing Committee of the National People's Congress. The delegation comprised Isaac Figir, Speaker of the
Congress of the Federated States of Micronesia, Tu'ilakepa, Speaker of the
Legislative Assembly of Tonga,
Manu Korovulavula, head of the Public Accounting Commission of Fiji, and Billy Talagi, head of the Legislative Committee of
Niue (a
dependent territory of New Zealand). The delegation also met Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao, who spoke of increased "economic and trade cooperation"; Xinhua reported that the Pacific Island legislators "expressed appreciation for China's assistance" and "reiterated their countries' adherence to the one-China policy". In August and September 2010, the
People's Liberation Army Navy began an unprecedented "goodwill visit" to its Pacific allies, touring Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu, Tonga, New Zealand and Australia. Its aim, as reported by the ''
People's Daily'' during the ships' four-day stop in Tonga, was "enhancing friendship and strengthening military cooperation". In April 2011, the Lowy Institute issued a new report noting that China, in its approach to the Pacific, had been "shifting from grant aid to soft loans", which were "leading to increasing problems of indebtedness" and "making Pacific governments vulnerable to political pressure from Beijing". The report suggested that countries may struggle to repay the loans within the set timeframe, and that "outstanding loans may well tie Pacific countries to Beijing", in a context of diplomatic competition with Taipei. The report also noted, however, that some loans "are destined for projects that will create economic growth; growth that will create jobs, reduce poverty and help make repayments". In May 2011, addressing the University of the South Pacific in
Suva, PRC Ambassador to Fiji Han Zhiqiang stated that Sino-Pacific cooperation had resulted in "plenty of substantial outcomes and benefits for the people in this region". He indicated that the volume of trade between the PRC and Pacific Island countries had increased by about 50% between 2009 and 2010, reaching
€ 2.46 billion. The value of PRC exports to the region that year was €1.74 billion (up by 42% from 2009), whilst the value of its imports from the Pacific Islands was €730 million, up almost 100%. PRC investments in the Pacific Islands in 2010 -primarily to Samoa, the Marshall Islands, Papua New Guinea and Fiji- had reached almost €72 million. In April 2012 China continued to widen its diplomatic influence with loans and aid with the region. In late May 2022, Chinese Foreign Minister
Wang Yi announced that China was pursuing a regional Pacific–wide agreement known as the
China-Pacific Island Countries Common Development Vision with ten Pacific Islands states. This multilateral agreement would cover various issues including law enforcement cooperation and training, communications infrastructure, cybersecurity, climate change, healthcare, and a proposed China-Pacific Islands Free Trade Area. In response, the
President of the Federated States of Micronesia David Panuelo opposed the proposed agreement, claiming it would create a new "Cold War" between China and the West. The
Australian Prime Minister Anthony Albanese and
Foreign Minister Penny Wong also vowed to increase Australian investment and developmental assistance to the Pacific Islands. Though China and the Pacific Islands states did not reach a consensus on the proposed multilateral agreement, Beijing succeeded in signing several bilateral agreements with Pacific states including separate security and civil aviation agreements with the Solomon Islands, ten bilateral agreements with the Solomon Islands, and an agreement to build a police fingerprint laboratory in Fiji.
Australia As an emerging and developing economy, China is a very important trading partner and destination for Australian
raw material export for the growth of Australian economy. The two countries are currently strengthening their economic relations. The 2007 election of
Kevin Rudd as Prime Minister of Australia has been seen as favourable to Sino-Australian relations, notably since he is the first Australian Prime Minister to speak fluent Mandarin, and that closer engagement with Asia is one of the
"Three Pillars" of his foreign policy. In 2004, Rudd, who at the time was Shadow Minister for Foreign Affairs, had delivered a speech in Beijing entitled "Australia and China: A Strong and Stable Partnership for the 21st Century". In February 2008, Australia reportedly "chastised Taiwan for its renewed push for independence" and "reiterated its support for a one-China policy". In April, however, Rudd addressed Chinese students at
Peking University, and, speaking in
Mandarin, referred to "significant human rights problems in Tibet". Rudd also raised the issue in talks with Chinese
Premier Wen Jiabao, in a context of "simmering diplomatic tension" according to
TV3. In August 2008, Rudd met Wen once more, and expressed his concerns on "questions of human rights, of religious freedom, of Tibet, of internet freedom". The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated issues and tensions between the countries, especially after Australia called for an international, independent inquiry into the origins of the disease. The subsequent changes that China made to its trade policies have been interpreted as political retaliation and economic
coercion against Australia.
Fiji Fiji was the first Pacific Island country to establish diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China, in 1975. Among the
Pacific Islands countries, Fiji was, in 2010, the second largest importer of PRC exports, after Papua New Guinea, and had a trade deficit of
A$127m in its trade relations with China. Fiji's foreign policy under Prime Minister
Laisenia Qarase was to "look north" – i.e., strengthen the country's relations with Asia in general and China in particular. Following the
2006 military coup in Fiji, China contrasted itself from Western countries which largely condemned the overthrow of Qarase's government. Post-coup prime minister
Frank Bainimarama continued Qarase's "look north" policy. In July 2007, Finance Minister
Mahendra Chaudhry responded to the contrast between Western criticism and Chinese support for Bainimarama's government: :''"Fiji has friends in China, it has friends in
Korea, it has friends in [...] other Asian countries. We're no longer relying on
Australia and
New Zealand. And in any event, the
United States was not doing much for Fiji anyway."'' In 2007, a China/Fiji Trade and Economic Commission was set up to enhance economic relations between the two countries. A May 2008 article in
The Sydney Morning Herald stated that "China's aid to Fiji has skyrocketed since the coup in December 2006", from €650,000 to over €100,000,000. The author of the article commented: "Just as Australia and other Western donors are trying to squeeze [Fiji's] rebel Government, China has dramatically stepped up its aid, effectively dissipating any pressure Western donors might have been generating."
Federated States of Micronesia The
Federated States of Micronesia opened an embassy in Beijing.
New Zealand Diplomatic relations with
New Zealand were first established in 1972. the PRC diplomatic representative to New Zealand, Zhang Limin, is also accredited to New Zealand's
associated territories, the
Cook Islands and, since 2008,
Niue. The People's Republic of China in December 2007 became the first country to establish official diplomatic relations with Niue, and provides economic aid to the Cook Islands. In September 2007, New Zealand reaffirmed its adherence to the "One China" policy. In April 2008, New Zealand became the first
developed country to sign a
free trade agreement with the PRC. On 29 September 2008, New Zealand's delegate in United Nations openly praised the improving relations between the two governments of Beijing and Taipei. In July 2009, Niuean
Premier Toke Talagi stated that, if development aid were not forthcoming from New Zealand, he would request aid from China instead.
Papua New Guinea Diplomatic relations with
Papua New Guinea were established in 1976, soon after Papua New Guinea became independent. Papua New Guinea is one of China's biggest trade partners in Oceania. Papua New Guinea exports far more to China than does any other
Pacific Islands country, and imports three times more from China than does any other such country. It is also one of the few countries in the region to maintain a trade surplus in its relations with China; its surplus reached a record high of
A$427m in 2010. In 2003, Chinese embassy in
Port Moresby published a statement of concern in reaction to comments in the Papua New Guinea press questioning the justification for PNG's relations with the People's Republic. The embassy statement insisted that relations between the two countries were mutually beneficial, reasserted Chinese claims to Taiwan, and concluded: "It is our sincere hope that the local [PNG] media will report on China and its relations with PNG in a just and objective way, so as to further enhance the mutual understanding and friendship between the peoples of our two countries." In July 2003, PNG Governor General Sir
Silas Atopare visited China, re-affirmed his country's adherence to the One China policy, and, according to a statement published by Chinese embassy, "thank[ed] the government and the people of China for their commitment in providing aid to PNG's development". In 2005, relations cooled somewhat when Papua New Guinea, along with Fiji, supported Taiwan's wish to join the
World Health Organization. It was announced that members of the
Papua New Guinea Defence Force would receive training provided by China. Traditionally, military training aid in Papua New Guinea had been provided by
Western countries, namely,
Australia, New Zealand and the U.S.
Samoa The diplomatic relations between China and
Samoa were established in 1975. In the late 1980s, China began sending doctors to the Samoan National Hospital, and sent over a hundred over the following two decades. In 2008, China donated over €1,360,000 to Samoa to fund its education policies. In March 2008, following unrest in Tibet, the speaker of the Samoan
Fono (legislative assembly), Tolofuaivalelei Falemoe Leiataua, stated that foreign leaders should not interfere with China as it deals with "internal affairs", and that they should not meet the
Dalai Lama. In June 2008, Samoa announced it would be opening diplomatic missions in China and Japan – the country's first diplomatic offices in Asia. In September, the Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs issued a statement indicating that China and Samoa have always "conducted fruitful cooperation in the fields of economy, trade, agriculture, sports, culture, education and health, as well as international affairs", and that China intended to "make more tangible efforts to support Samoa's economic and social development". In 2010, the Chinese government-funded China-Samoa Agricultural Demonstration Farm was established in Nu'u with an aim "to train the Samoan farmers on voluntary basis through Chinese agricultural planting techniques". About 500 Samoan farmers received training from Chinese agricultural experts. In 2001, Tonga and China decided to strengthen their "military relations". In 2008, China provided Tonga with military supplies worth over €340,000. In 2006, rioters caused severe damage to shops owned by Chinese-Tongans in
Nukualofa. In April 2008, Tongan King
George Tupou V visited China, reaffirmed his country's adherence to the "One China" policy, and, according to the Chinese State news agency
Xinhua, "supported the measures adopted to handle
the incident in
Lhasa". King Tupou V also met Chinese Defense Minister
Liang Guanglie to "enhance exchange and cooperation between the two militaries". Xinhua stated that China and Tonga have "fruitful cooperation in politics, economy, trade, agriculture and education, and kept a sound coordination in regional and international affairs". In early 2010, Chinese aid to Tonga included assistance in the reconstruction of Nuku'alofa's central business district; "an agricultural project in
Vaini"; health clinics set up in
Vavaʻu and Vaini; the provision of seven Chinese doctors for a two-year period; and an allocation of €2.2 million "for social and economic development", including "soft loans and interest free loans to the Tonga Government". In April 2011, the
Lowy Institute reported that, of all Pacific countries, Tonga was carrying the highest burden of debt from Chinese loans, amounting to 32% of Tonga's
GDP. Simultaneously, the
International Monetary Fund warned Tonga was "facing debt distress", a "very high possibility that Tonga [would] be unable to service its debts in the future". By contrast, Opposition leader Serge Vohor has said China is exerting too much influence on the ni-Vanuatu government's policy. In May 2009, Vanuatu appointed its first ever ambassador to China, former Minister of Finance
Willie Jimmy. Jimmy "call[ed] [...] for China to have a foot firmly planted in the Pacific through
Port Vila", which -the
Vanuatu Daily Post remarked- "no doubt caused ruffled feathers among other foreign diplomatic partners". In July 2010, Chinese Ambassador Cheng Shuping announced that China would fund a number of projects in Vanuatu, "including the National Convention Centre and the expansion of Prime Minister's Offices", as well as "the design and reconstruction of the Francophone Wing of the
University of the South Pacific Emalus Campus". == Countries without diplomatic relations with the PRC ==