by
Kōshō, son of
Unkei, dating to the first decade of the thirteenth century. The six syllables of the nembutsu,
na-mu-a-mi-da-butsu, are represented literally by six small Amida figures streaming from Kūya's mouth. , which is based on the
Amitāyurdhyāna Sūtra. Pure Land is one of the most widely practiced traditions of
Buddhism in East Asia. It may be the dominant form of Buddhism in
China,
Japan,
Vietnam and
Korea. All Chinese sources agree that the principal practice of the Pure Land "easy path" is
nianfo (; Japanese: ), which is described in a variety of different ways by Chinese sources and is also called "holding the name" (
chēngmíng). Patriarch Shandao writes that while nianfo is the "primary deed" (zhengye) in pure land practice, there are also four other auxiliary practices (zhuye): reciting Pure Land sutras,
contemplating Amitabha, worshiping Amitabha and singing praises to Amitabha. All other practices apart from these are "miscellaneous practices" (zaxing) and are secondary to the five primary Pure Land practices. In some forms of
East Asian Buddhism, nianfo is generally seen as one practice among many. For example, according to
Yuan dynasty monk Tianru Weize's (, 1286?–1354)
Questions about Pure Land (T.1972), there are three main approaches to Pure Land practice: visualization (), recollection and invocation (), and "various practices" () which include ethical precepts, taking refuge and so on (and whose merit can lead to the Pure Land, especially if dedicated to this purpose). In other quarters however, nianfo is the only practice which is recommended and other practices are not seen as helpful. The Japanese Pure Land sects of
Jōdo-shū and traditionally focus on the oral recitation of the nianfo exclusively. Similarly, the Chinese master Jixing Chewu (1741–1810) practiced and taught nianfo exclusively, having practiced it together with Chan in the past but then having abandoning this dual practice for an exclusive focus on nianfo.
Nianfo In Chinese Buddhism Repeating the name of a Buddha such as Amitābha is traditionally a form of
mindfulness of the Buddha (Skt. ''
). This term was translated into Chinese as nianfo
, by which it is popularly known in English. The practice is often described as calling the buddha to mind by repeating his name, to enable the practitioner to bring all his or her attention upon that Buddha (See: samādhi'') chanting Amituofo while walking, prostrating, or in seated meditation . This may be done vocally or mentally, and with or without the use of
Buddhist prayer beads. Those who practice this method often commit to a fixed set of repetitions per day. However, Chinese Buddhist Pure Land practice also commonly relies on multiple elements for their practice of nianfo, including contemplation and visualization of Amitābha, his attendant bodhisattvas, and the Pure Land. Such visualization methods are found in the
Pratyutpanna-samādhi-sūtra and in the
Amitayurdhyana Sutra, which presents sixteen progressive visualizations, each corresponding to the attainment of various levels of rebirth in the Pure Land. The first of these steps is contemplation of a setting sun, until the visualization is clear whether the eyes are open or closed. Each step adds complexity to the visualization of Sukhāvatī, with the final contemplation being an expansive visual which includes Amitābha and his attendant bodhisattvas. According to Inagaki Hisao, this method was widely followed in the past for the purpose of developing samādhi. Visualization practises for Amitābha are also popular in
Chinese Esoteric Buddhism,
Shingon Buddhism as well as other schools of
Vajrayana. One Chinese master who taught nianfo along with visualization was Yìnguāng (1861–1940). He also stressed the importance of other elements in this practice, mainly faith in Amitābha, vowing to be reborn in Sukhāvatī and also having the intention to transfer the merit of one's practice to all beings. Similarly, Jixing Chewu stressed the importance of various prerequisite elements to nianfo practice: bodhicitta, faith in the Pure Land, an aspiration to achieve rebirth there, a sense of shame at past wrongdoing, joy at having learned of Pure Land, sadness over one's bad karma and gratitude to the Buddha.
Types of nianfo Guifeng Zongmi was a Huayan and Chan master who also wrote on nianfo practice. He taught a schema of four types of nianfo which were adopted by later Pure Land authors like Yunqi Zhuhong (1535–1615) and Zhiyu (1924–2000). Zongmi's four types of nianfo are (1) Contemplation of the name "which focuses on "mentally holding" the name; (2) Contemplating an image of the Buddha; (3) Contemplating the major and minor marks of a Buddha without a physical image, and (4) Contemplating the "true mark", in which one contemplates the Dharma Body (Dharmakaya), the true self in all phenomenon. • "Contemplation of the name" (), which is based on
The Perfection of Wisdom Sutra preached by Mañjuśrī (T.232) and involves selecting a Buddha, facing their direction, and focusing on their name until one has a vision of all Buddhas (past, present, and future). As noted by Jones, while later Chinese Pure Land thinkers interpreted this practice as oral recitation, it seems that for Zongmi this entailed mentally "holding" () the sound of the name. Yunqi Zhuhong taught "holding the name" in various ways including: audible recitation of the name (), silent contemplation of the name (), or contemplation accompanied by barely audible whispering of the name (). • "Contemplating an image" (), which is based on the
Dà bǎojī jīng (,
Great Jewel Collection Sutra, T.310) Through contemplating an image of a Buddha, one may achieve the realisation the non-duality or separation from imaging with a Buddha and as extension all sentient life." • "Contemplating the visualization" (), "means to contemplate the major and minor marks of a Buddha's body without the aid of a physical image. The first comes from the Sutra of
Fó shuō guānfó sānmèihǎi jīng () where the practitioner may choose to select one of the Buddha's features or attributes to focus on or contemplate them all simultaneously." or second that comes from the
Zuòchán sānmèi jīng () Sutra where the practitioner contemplates one or all of the four greats () at a time that being earth, wind, fire, water or any other Dhrama. This is also the method for the visually impaired or blind practitioner. • "Contemplating the true mark" (), Normally reserved for experienced or advanced practitioners "one contemplates the Buddha's dharma body, which is also the contemplation of one's own true self and the true nature of all phenomena. This is also based on
The Perfection of Wisdom Sutra Preached by Mañjuśrī, which describes the Buddha nature as primordial universality as John's refers to as a "unproduced and unextinguished, neither going nor coming, without name and without feature. That alone is called 'buddha'." This schema may have been presented as a progressive path of practice, from easiest to most difficult and profound. While
Zongmi held that the fourth method of nianfo was the most profound, Yunqi Zhuhong reversed this progression, arguing that "contemplation of the name" was actually the highest practice and that it was to obtain wisdom and enlightenment in this life more than to be reborn in the Pure Land. Yunqi Zhuhong also taught that there were two main mental attitudes that can be applied to practicing nianfo: • "Phenomenal holding of the name" (), which entails concentrating on the individual syllables of the name. This leads to a calm and focused mind, and thus to samadhi and so it is mainly a "calming" (, samatha) practice. • "Noumenal holding of the name" (), which shifts the attention to the mind that is holding the name and eventually realizes that the non-duality of oneself and Amitabha. This is a contemplation () practice aimed at wisdom.
In Japanese Buddhism The various Japanese Buddhist traditions practice Pure Land in different ways. In traditions like
Sanron and
Tendai, nenbutsu (nianfo) is seen as one method among many, to be practiced in conjunction with other Buddhist practices like meditation, rituals, and precepts. The independent Pure Land schools in Japan, especially , have different interpretations of nianfo where they emphasize nianfo and faith or the entrusting heart (
shinjin) over and above all other forms of Buddhist practice. They also hold that this idea was taught by the three Chinese Patriarchs of their purported lineage:
Tanluan,
Daochuo and
Shandao. This exclusivity is not supported by the historical evidence which shows that the Chinese patriarchs undertook visualization meditation, scriptural study and other practices.
Group practice and rituals .|185x185px Group practice, whether in a ritual setting or in retreat, is a common part of modern Pure Land Buddhism. One important form of ritual in Pure Land Buddhism are death rituals.
Death is often assigned a special importance in Pure Land Buddhism. This is because the time of death is seen as a key moment were one could either focus the mind on Amitabha and gain rebirth in the Pure Land or become distracted and troubled by worldly things. According to Jones, one can find descriptions of such rituals in the memoirs of the Ming dynasty Pure Land teacher Yuan Hongdao (1568–1610). The basic goal of these rituals was to "provide the dying person with an environment free from anything that would distract them from focusing on Amitābha and to offer support by practicing alongside them. At its simplest, family members gathered around the bedside and helped the dying person maintain a constant flow of nianfo, sometimes taking over for them if their breath became too weak." Chinese Buddhists would also be on the lookout for auspicious signs during these rituals, such as visions of Amitabha and bright lights. Over time, deathbed rituals could become very elaborate and funeral specialists developed which focused on these elements of Pure Land practice. They might involve extensive liturgies and works of art depicting Amitabha. Another form of group practice which is common in Chinese Pure Land Buddhism is the nianfo recitation retreat, where Buddhists come together for intensive recitation practice for several days. These retreats always focus on nianfo recitation (walking or sitting), but might also include chanting of the Pure Land sutras, taking of
the eight precepts, silent meditation and
Dharma lectures. Japanese Pure Land Buddhist sects, like
Jōdo Shinshū Hongwanji-ha, also perform numerous ritual services for their congregation. Charles B. Jones notes that in this school: "there is an "infant rite" to welcome the birth of a new baby, a "confirmation ceremony" to affirm one's commitment to the Jōdo Shinshū and receive a dharma name, a "wedding ceremony" that unites a couple's marriage vows with a reaffirmation of their commitment to the way of Amitābha, and, of course, funeral rites to commend loved ones to rebirth in the Pure Land. Individual parishioners may also request special services, such as a home visit during which the minister chants the Smaller Sūtra in front of the family buddha-altar (Jp: butsudan), or memorial services to mark the death anniversaries of loved ones." According to Jōdo Shinshū teaching, while these rituals do not actually contribute to one's attainment of the Pure Land (only
shinjin does), they still promote virtues like self-reflection, awareness, gratitude and humility.
Sutra and dhāraṇī chanting dhāraṇī for
Amitābha written in the
Siddhaṃ script.
Mogao Caves,
Dunhuang, China Another common practice in Pure Land Buddhism is the chanting of sutras (especially the three Pure Land sutras). Sutra chanting was one of the auxiliary methods taught by Pure Land patriarchs like
Shandao and
Genshin. One popular Pure Land dhāraṇī is the
Pure Land Rebirth dhāraṇī (), also known as the Mantra for Birth in the Pure Land. The repetition of this dhāraṇī (which actually refers to two texts, a long and a short one) is said to be very popular among traditional Chinese Buddhists. Other popular dhāraṇīs in East Asian Buddhism which is said to lead to birth in Sukhavati include the
Great Compassion Dhāraṇī, the
Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī Sūtra, and the
Viśuddhaprabhā Dhāraṇī. The use of dhāraṇīs as a Pure Land practice permeated Japanese Buddhism during the Heian and Kamakura periods. In classic works like
The Tale of Genji, and various
Ojoden (Accounts of Rebirth) writings, practitioners are depicted as chanting Pure Land dhāraṇīs many times.
Dual practice with Chan In Chinese Buddhism, there is a common practice called the "dual path of Chan and Pure Land cultivation", which is also called the "dual path of emptiness and existence." As taught by
Nan Huai-Chin, the name of Amitābha is recited slowly, and the mind is emptied out after each repetition. When idle thoughts arise, the name is repeated again to clear them. With constant practice, the mind is able to remain peacefully in emptiness, culminating in the attainment of samādhi. Some Chinese masters argued that the practice of Chan by itself was risky, since one did not know if it would bear fruit in this life. Hence, it was better to practice both Chan meditation and nianfo, and in this way, one could at least be ensured of rebirth in the Pure Land. A later development fused the two practices into one, which was called the Pure Land
kōan and consisted of practicing nianfo while also asking oneself "Who is performing nianfo?" Other Chinese meditation masters, particularly in the Chan school, taught nianfo as a secondary method. Thus, while
Hanshan Deqing taught nianfo recitation, he saw is as a lesser practice than Chan meditation proper. Similarly, Chan master
Xuyun (1840?–1959) subsumed nianfo under a Chan framework which interprets it as a kind of
huatou practice. The method of joint Pure Land and Chan practice was formalized in
Korean Buddhism as part of the "Three Gates" (
sammun) schema which taught nianfo,
Seon meditation and doctrinal study. This system was first articulated by Ch’ongheo Hyujong in the 17th century, who held that the three practices work together. The eclectic practice of Chan and Pure Land (along with other classic Buddhist practices and rituals) are also a common feature of
Vietnamese Buddhism. The dual practice of Zen meditation along with recitation of Amitabha's name is also common in the Japanese
Ōbaku school of Buddhism.
Benefits Pure Land practice is primarily said to lead to rebirth in Amitabha's Pure Land and thus the bodhisattva stage of non-retrogression (since at the point one has reached the Pure Land, one will not fall back from this to a lower realm). This Pure Land is often described as a kind of way station or hostel () outside of the triple world of samsara. It is a place that lacks suffering and which allows someone to practice the bodhisattva path without difficulties. However, Pure Land authors also report other benefits of practicing Pure Land which appear in this life. Benefits include the buddha-contemplation samādhi, purification of the mind, and elimination of bad karma. Various worldly benefits of nianfo practice have also been reported by Pure Land masters at least since the Song dynasty. For example, when Tiantai master
Siming Zhili (960–1028) organized a Pure Land society, he said that the society's practice would "extend the emperor's
longevity () and contribute to the prosperity () of the people." Yinguang said he had been healed of conjunctivitis by the practice. Thus, some traditional Chinese sources use nianfo as a health incantation with numerous benefits. These benefits can be found in sources like "Forty-Eight Ways to Nianfo" () by Zheng Wei'an and other traditional Chinese medical text. ==In Himalayan Buddhism==