throughout Asia. Vajrayana (in the form of Tibetan Buddhism) dominates the Himalayan regions and in the
Mongolian regions. engraved on a stele. Temple Fo Ding Shan Chao Sheng in Sanyi Township,
Taiwan. Erected in June 2005.Although there is historical evidence for
Vajrayāna Buddhism in Southeast Asia and elsewhere (see
History of Vajrayāna above), today Vajrayāna exists primarily in the form of the two major traditions of
Indo-Tibetan Buddhism (in
Tibet and other parts of the
PRC,
Bhutan,
India and also internationally) and
Japanese Esoteric Buddhism (mostly in
Japan), which is found in the
Shingon (literally "True Speech", i.e.
mantra) and
Tendai schools. Other traditions like contemporary
Chinese Buddhism,
Japanese Zen,
Korean Buddhism, and
Vietnamese Buddhism also make use of esoteric (Chinese: mijiao, Japanese:
mikkyo) or mantrayana methods to a lesser extent. In many Asian Mahāyāna Buddhist traditions, esoteric methods are used as a complement, not as the central practice. This mainly involves the recitation of mantras (like the
ten small mantras) and various popular
dharanis. However, certain revival movements have attempted to establish new esoteric schools in mainland East Asia such as Mantra School Bright Lineage (in China) and the South Korean
Jingak Order. There was strong connection between the
Palas in
Bengal,
Srivijaya in
Nusantara, and the kingdoms in
East Asia through the sea route. Medieval monks were a prime factor in the spread of esoteric Buddhism. The distinction between mantrayana traditions is not always rigid. For example, the
tantra sections of the
Tibetan Buddhist canon of texts sometimes include material not usually thought of as tantric outside the Tibetan Buddhist tradition, such as the widely recited
Heart Sutra and even versions of some material found in the
Pali Canon.
Chinese Esoteric Buddhism in
Shanghai, China, which promotes the Chinese Zhenyan (Mantrayana) tradition. Esoteric and Tantric teachings followed the same route into northern
China as
Buddhism itself, arriving via the
Silk Road and Southeast Asian Maritime trade routes sometime during the first half of the 7th century, during the
Tang dynasty and received sanction from the emperors of the Tang dynasty. During this time, three great masters came from India to China:
Śubhakarasiṃha,
Vajrabodhi, and
Amoghavajra who translated key texts and founded the
Zhenyan (真言, "true word", "
mantra") tradition.
Zhenyan was also brought to
Japan as
Shingon during this period. This tradition focused on tantras like the
Mahavairocana tantra, and unlike Tibetan Buddhism, it does not employ the antinomian and radical tantrism of the
Anuttarayoga Tantras. The prestige of this tradition eventually influenced other schools of
Chinese Buddhism such as
Chan and
Tiantai to adopt various esoteric practices over time, leading to a merging of teachings between the various schools. During the
Yuan dynasty, the
Mongol emperors made
Tibetan Buddhism the official religion of China, and Tibetan lamas were given patronage at the court. Imperial support of Tibetan Vajrayana continued into the Ming and Qing dynasties. of a Yujia Yankou ritual performing a mudrā while wearing a Five Buddha crown adorned with images of the
Five Tathāgatas Today, esoteric traditions are deeply embedded in mainstream Chinese Buddhism and expressed through various rituals which make use of tantric mantra and dhāraṇī and the veneration of certain tantric deities like
Cundi and
Acala. One example of esoteric teachings still practiced in many Chinese Buddhist monasteries is the
Śūraṅgama Sūtra and the dhāraṇī revealed within it, the
Śūraṅgama Mantra, which are especially influential in the Chinese Chan tradition. Another example is the popular tantric
Yujia Yankou ritual, where monastics take on the role of a
vajrācārya and performs
deity yoga through the usage of
mantras,
mudrās and
maṇḍala offerings in order to help facilitate the nourishment and ultimate liberation of all
sentient beings. In particular, the usage of
mantras,
mudrās and
maṇḍalas in the ritual correspond directly to the concept of the "Three Mysteries" (
Chinese: 三密;
pinyin:
Sānmì) in
tantric Buddhism: the "secrets" of body, speech and mind. A recent development is known as the "tantric revival movement" (mijiao fuxing yundong 密教復興運動) which involved the revival of Chinese Esoteric schools by Chinese students of Japanese Shingon. Some important figures of this revival include Wang Hongyuan 王弘願 (1876–1937), and Guru Wuguang (悟光上師 (1918–2000), both trained in Shingon and went on to spread Shingon teachings in the Chinese speaking world. These revivalist lineages exist in Hong Kong, Taiwan and Malaysia. Though they draw mainly from Shingon teachings, they have also adopted some
Tibetan Buddhist elements. Another form of esoteric Buddhism in China is the related but unique tradition of
Azhaliism, which is practiced among the
Bai people of China and venerates
Mahakala as a major deity.
Japanese esotericism holding a vajra and a mala, 14th century, Art Institute of Chicago
Shingon Buddhism The Shingon school is found in
Japan and includes practices, known in Japan as
Mikkyō ("Esoteric (or Mystery) Teaching"), which are similar in concept to those in Vajrayana Buddhism. The lineage for Shingon Buddhism differs from that of Tibetan Vajrayana, having emerged from
India during the 9th–11th centuries in the
Pala Dynasty and
Central Asia (via
China) and is based on earlier versions of the Indian texts than the Tibetan lineage. Shingon shares material with
Tibetan Buddhism – such as the esoteric sutras (called
Tantras in Tibetan Buddhism) and
mandalas – but the actual practices are not related. The primary texts of Shingon Buddhism are the
Mahavairocana Sutra and
Vajrasekhara Sutra. The founder of Shingon Buddhism was
Kukai, a Japanese monk who studied in China in the 9th century during the Tang dynasty and brought back Vajrayana scriptures, techniques and mandalas then popular in China. The school was merged into other schools in China towards the end of the Tang dynasty but was sectarian in Japan. Shingon is one of the few remaining branches of Buddhism in the world that continues to use the
siddham script of the
Sanskrit language.
Tendai Buddhism Although the Tendai school in China and Japan does employ some esoteric practices, these rituals came to be considered of equal importance with the exoteric teachings of the
Lotus Sutra. By chanting
mantras, maintaining mudras, or practicing certain forms of meditation,
Tendai maintains that one is able to understand sense experiences as taught by the Buddha, have
faith that one is innately an enlightened being, and that one can attain enlightenment within the current lifetime.
Korean milgyo Esoteric Buddhist practices (known as
milgyo, 密教) and texts arrived in
Korea during the introduction of Buddhism to the region in 372 CE. Esoteric Buddhism was supported by the royalty of both
Unified Silla (668–935) and
Goryeo Dynasty (918–1392). During the
Joseon dynasty, Esoteric Buddhist schools were forced to merge with the Seon and Kyo schools, becoming the ritual specialists. With the decline of Buddhism in Korea, Esoteric Buddhism mostly died out, save for a few traces in the rituals of the
Jogye Order and
Taego Order. According to Henrik H. Sørensen, the Jineon and Jingak Orders "have absolutely no historical link with the Korean Buddhist tradition per se but are late constructs based in large measures on Japanese Shingon Buddhism." By the 12th century (under the
Lý dynasty), esoteric Buddhism was widespread in Vietnam, and was especially favored by the
Vô Ngôn Thông school as well as by the
Vinitaruci school. One famous esoteric master of this period was
Từ Đạo Hạnh. He brought back various texts and practices from Burma. He became famous as a powerful magician. He was fond of the
Mahākaruṇika Dhāraṇī. He also spread esoteric teachings throughout Vietnam and liberalized their practice, making them less dependent on reincarnation lineages (similar to Tibetan
tulkus). Another promoter of esoteric Buddhism during this period was Sùng Phạm (1004-1078) of Phap Van pagoda who studied in India for nine years before returning to Vietnam and was the teacher of the influential esoteric master Tri Bat. Phap Loa (1284-1330), a leader of the
Truc Lam school, was another very influential Vietnamese esoteric master. He is known for establishing esoteric abhiseka (initiation) ceremonies as well as Huayan (
Hoa Nghiêm) assemblies. He also wrote various texts on esoteric topics. Chinese Buddhist esotericism also influenced Vietnamese esotericism during the medieval period, especially the
Huayan Esotericism of Daoshen's
Xianmi yuantong chengfo xinyao ji (顯密圓通成佛心要集
Collection of Essentials for the Attainment of Buddhahood by Total [Inter-]Penetration of the Esoteric and the Exoteric, T1955). Some modern teachers and organizations focus specifically on Vietnamese esoteric Buddhism.
Thích Viên Đức (1932-1980) was one important modern promoter of Esoteric Buddhism. He is known for translating a collection of Esoteric Buddhist texts, contributing to the dissemination of Esoteric Buddhism in Vietnam. Thích Viên Đức promoted esoteric Buddhist teachings as the fastest path to enlightenment. He established numerous communities in southern Vietnam and was also known as a healer. He also met with Tibetan lamas and Japanese Buddhists. Another modern Vietnamese esoteric organization is
Mat Giao Friendship Association who publishes Phước Triệu's
Quintessence of Esoteric Buddhism (2004). Esoteric practices are also currently associated with the
Thầy Temple in
Greater Hanoi. Vietnamese esotericism can also be quite sycretic, borrowing from Chinese, Japanese and Tibetan Buddhism.
Indo-Tibetan Buddhism (identified as
Swat district),
Padmasambhava was an important figure in disseminating Buddhism in Tibet Buddhism was initially established in
Tibet in the 8th century when various figures like
Padmasambhāva (8th century CE) and
Śāntarakṣita (725–788) were invited by King
Trisong Detsen, some time before 767. In contrast to its neighbours that adhered to Mahayana, Tibet adopted Vajrayana on full scale following the
Samye debate, where Indian Vajrayana scholar
Kamalaśīla defeated the
Chan Buddhist scholar
Moheyan in an
Indian style debate. Tibetan Buddhism reflects the later stages tantric
Indian Buddhism of the
post-Gupta Early Medieval period (500 to 1200 CE). This tradition practices and studies a set of tantric texts and commentaries associated with the more "left hand" (
vamachara) tantras, which are not part of East Asian Esoteric Buddhism. These tantras (sometimes termed '
Anuttarayoga tantras' include many transgressive elements, such as sexual and mortuary symbolism that is not shared by the earlier tantras that are studied in East Asian Buddhism. These texts were translated into
Classical Tibetan during the "New translation period" (10th–12th centuries). Tibetan Buddhism also includes numerous native Tibetan developments, such as the
tulku system, new
sadhana texts, Tibetan scholastic works,
Dzogchen literature and
Terma literature. There are four major traditions or schools:
Nyingma,
Sakya,
Kagyu, and
Gelug in addition to minor schools like
Jonang and
Rimé movement. In the pre-modern era, Tibetan Buddhism spread outside of Tibet primarily due to the influence of the
Mongol Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), founded by
Kublai Khan, which ruled
China,
Mongolia and eastern
Siberia. In the
modern era it has spread outside of Asia due to the efforts of the
Tibetan diaspora (1959 onwards). The Tibetan Buddhist tradition is today found in Tibet,
Bhutan, northern
India,
Nepal, southwestern and northern
China,
Mongolia and various constituent
republics of
Russia that are adjacent to the area, such as
Amur Oblast,
Buryatia,
Zabaykalsky Krai, the
Tuva Republic and
Khabarovsk Krai. Tibetan Buddhism is also the main religion in
Kalmykia. It has also spread to Western countries and there are now international networks of Tibetan Buddhist temples and meditation centers in the Western world from all four schools.
Bengali Buddhism in
sexual union with
Vajravarahi from Bengal Bengal was a thriving centre of Vajrayana under the patronage of the
Pala dynasty. Many mahasiddhas hailed from the
Eastern zone of the Indian subcontinent, with the
Charyapada, a collection of songs composed by these mahasiddhas, containing early references to Vajrayana as well as being an early written record of
Eastern Indic languages. Bengali Vajrayana scholar
Atiśa played a vital role in revitalizing
Buddhism in Tibet following its persecution by the
Bon emperor
Langdarma and onset of the
Era of Fragmentation, leading to the foundation of the
Kadam lineage. Another Bengali Vajrayana scholar
Abhayakaragupta also had a profound impact on Tibetan Buddhism. However Vajrayana
declined by the time the
Sena dynasty came to power. Vajrayana was further affected by the
Islamic conquest of India & consolidation of
Muslim rule in Bengal, with many of its adherents converting to
Islam under duress & later
Gaudiya Vaishnavism, which lead to creation of new groups like
Sahajiyas. Today Buddhism in Bengal is followed only by a small minority of
Jumma people who are followers of
Theravāda Buddhism.
Nepalese Newar Buddhism performing rituals at
Swayambhunath Newar Buddhism is practiced by
Newars in
Nepal. It is the only form of Vajrayana Buddhism in which the scriptures are written in
Sanskrit and this tradition has preserved many Vajrayana texts in this language. Its priests do not follow celibacy and are called
vajracharya (literally "
diamond-thunderbolt carriers").
Indonesian Esoteric Buddhism Indonesian Esoteric Buddhism refers to the traditions of Esoteric Buddhism found in the Indonesian islands of
Java and
Sumatra before the rise and dominance of
Islam in the region (13–16th centuries). The Buddhist empire of
Srivijaya (650 CE–1377 CE) was a major center of Esoteric Buddhist learning which drew Chinese monks such as
Yijing and Indian scholars like
Atiśa. The temple complex at
Borobudur in central Java, built by the
Shailendra dynasty also reflects strong Tantric or at least proto-tantric influences, particularly of the cult of
Vairocana. statue from
Khmer empire, dating to the reign of
Jayavarman VII Indonesian Esoteric Buddhism may have also reached the
Philippines, possibly establishing the first form of
Buddhism in the Philippines. The few Buddhist artifacts that have been found in the islands reflect the iconography of Srivijaya's Vajrayana. == Related traditions ==