Social life The Hindu social order was prevalent and it influenced daily life in the empire. The rulers who occupied the top of this hierarchy assumed the honorific
Varnasramadharma (
lit, "helpers of the four classes and four stages"). According to Talbot, caste was more importantly determined by occupation or the professional community people belonged to, although the family lineage (
Gotra) and the broad distinction described in sacred Hindu texts were also factors. The structure also contained sub-castes and caste clusters ("Jati"). According to Vanina, caste as a social identity was not fixed and was constantly changed for reasons including polity, trade and commerce, and was usually determined by context. Identification of castes and sub-castes was made based on temple affiliations, lineage, family units, royal retinues, warrior clans, occupational groups, agricultural and trade groups, devotional networks, and even priestly cabals. It was also not impossible for a caste to lose its position and prestige and slip down the ladder while others rose up the same. Epigraphy studies by Talbot suggests that members within a family could have different social status based on their occupation and the upward movement of a caste or sub-caste was not uncommon based on the breakthroughs achieved by an individual or a group of individuals from the community. Caste affiliation was closely tied to craft production and members of a common craft formed collective memberships. Often members of related crafts formed inter-caste communities. This helped them consolidate strength and gain political representation and trade benefits. According to Talbot, terminology such as
Setti was used to identify communities across merchant and artisan classes while
Boya identified herders of all types.
Artisans consisted of blacksmiths, goldsmiths, brasssmiths and carpenters. These communities lived in separate sections of the city to avoid disputes, especially when it came to social privileges. Conquests led to large-scale migration of people leading to marginalisation of natives of a place. The
Tottiyans were shepherds who later gained marginal ruling status (
poligars),
Saurashtrans were traders who came from present-day Gujarat and rivalled the Brahmins for some benefits, the
Reddys were agriculturists and the
Uppilia were
salt farmers. According to Chopra et al., in addition to their monopoly over priestly duties, Brahmins occupied high positions in political and administrative fields. The Portuguese traveler
Domingo Paes observed an increasing presence of Brahmins in the military. The separation of the priestly class from material wealth and power made them ideal arbiters in local judicial matters, and the nobility and aristocracy ensured their presence in every town and village to maintain order. Vanina notes that within the warrior class was a conglomerate of castes, kinship and clans that usually originated from landholding and pastoral communities. They ascended the social ladder by abandoning their original occupations and adopting to a martial code of living, ethics and practices. In South India they were loosely called the
Nayakas. '', snake worship in Hampi
Sati practice is evidenced in Vijayanagara ruins by several inscriptions known as
Satikal (Sati stone) or
Sati-virakal (Sati hero stone). There are controversial views among historians regarding this practice including religious compulsion, marital affection, martyrdom or honor against subjugation by foreign intruders. The socio-religious movements that gained popularity in the previous centuries, such as
Lingayatism, provided momentum for flexible social norms that helped the cause of women. By this time
South Indian women had crossed most barriers and were actively involved in fields hitherto considered the monopoly of men such as administration, business, trade and the fine arts.
Tirumalamba Devi who wrote
Varadambika Parinayam and
Gangadevi the author of
Madhuravijayam were among the notable women poets of the Sanskrit language. Early Telugu women poets such as
Tallapaka Timmakka and
Atukuri Molla became popular. Further south the provincial
Nayaks of Tanjore patronised several women poets. The
Devadasi system, as well as legalized prostitution, existed and members of this community were relegated to a few streets in each city. The popularity of
harems among men of the royalty and the existence of
seraglio is well known from records. Well-to-do men wore the
Petha or
Kulavi, a tall
turban made of silk and decorated with gold. As in most Indian societies, jewellery was used by men and women and records describe the use of
anklets,
bracelets, finger-rings, necklaces and ear rings of various types. During celebrations men and women adorned themselves with flower garlands and used perfumes made of
rose water,
civet musk,
musk, or
sandalwood. In stark contrast to the commoners whose lives were modest, the lives of royalty were full of ceremonial pomp. Queens and princesses had numerous attendants who were lavishly dressed and adorned with fine jewellery. Their numbers ensured their daily duties were light. Physical exercises were popular with men and wrestling was an important male preoccupation for sport and entertainment, and women wrestlers are also mentioned in records. Gymnasiums have been discovered inside royal quarters and records mention regular physical training for commanders and their armies during peacetime. Royal palaces and marketplaces had special arenas where royalty and common people amused themselves by watching sports such as
cock fight,
ram fight and female wrestling. Excavations within the Vijayanagara city limits have revealed the existence of various community-based gaming activities. Engravings on boulders, rock platforms and temple floors indicate these were popular locations of casual social interaction. Some of these are gaming boards similar to the ones in use today and others are yet to be identified.
Dowry was in practice and can be seen in both Hindu and Muslim royal families. When a sister of
Sultan Ibrahim Adil Shah of
Bijapur was married to
Burhan Nizam Shah I of
Ahmednagar, the town of
Sholapur was given to the bride by her family. Ayyangar notes that when the
Gajapati King of
Kalinga gave his daughter in marriage honoring the victorious
Krishnadevaraya he included several villages as dowry. Inscriptions of the 15th and 16th centuries record the practice of dowry among commoners as well. The practice of putting a price on the bride was a possible influence of the Islamic
Mahr system. To oppose this influence, in the year 1553, the
Brahmin community passed a mandate under royal decree and popularized the
kanyadana within the community. According to this practice money could not be paid or received during marriage and those who did were liable for punishment. There is a mention of
Streedhana ("woman's wealth") in an inscription and that the villagers should not give away land as dowry. These inscriptions reinforce the theory that a system of social mandates within community groups existed and were widely practiced even though these practices did not find justification in the family laws described in the religious texts.
Religion '' The Vijayanagara emperors were
tolerant of all religions and sects, as writings by foreign visitors show. The emperors used titles such as
Gobrahamana Pratipalanacharya (
literally, "protector of cows and Brahmins") that testified to their intention of protecting Hinduism. The
Nāgarī script inscription at
Hampi includes the term
Hinduraya Suratrana, which historian
Benjamin Lewis Rice translates as "the Suratrana of Hindu Rayas". Some scholars have interpreted this to mean "the Sultan among Hindu kings" and state this to be evidence of some Islamic political traditions being adopted by Hindu monarchs, The long headdress are also seen in the royalty-related and secular artwork in
Pattadakal dated from the 7th and 8th century, about 5 centuries before the first Sultanate was formed in South Asia. Similar conical headdress is seen in other sites such as the
Ajanta Caves,
Ellora Caves,
Aihole and
Badami, variously dated from the 2nd century to 10th century. as well as that Indian kingdoms recognized their religious identity of being Hindu by the early 14th century. Others interpret the term
Hinduraya Suratrana to mean "protectors of the gods of (or among) the Hindu kings". The empire's founders, the Sangama brothers (Harihara I and Bukka Raya I), came from a pastoral cowherd background, possibly the
Kuruba people, that claimed Yadava lineage in an attempt to claim Kshatriya status like the rest of South Indian dynasties who originated from a pastoral background. The founders of the empire were devout
Shaivas (worshippers of the
Hindu god Shiva) but made grants to
Vishnu temples. Their patron saint
Vidyaranya was from the
Advaita order at
Sringeri. The
Varaha (the boar
avatar of Vishnu) was the
emblem of the empire. Over one-fourth of the archaeological dig found an "Islamic Quarter" not far from the "Royal Quarter". Nobles from Central Asia's Timurid kingdoms also came to Vijayanagara. The later
Saluva and
Tuluva kings were
Vaishnava (followers of Vishnu) by faith, but also worshipped
Venkateshwara (Vishnu) at
Tirupati as well as
Virupaksha (Shiva) at Hampi. A Sanskrit work,
Jambavati Kalyanam by Emperor Krishnadevaraya, refers to Virupaksha as
Karnata Rajya Raksha Mani ("protective jewel of Karnata Empire"). The kings patronised the saints of the
dvaita order (philosophy of dualism) of
Madhvacharya at
Udupi. Endowments were made to temples in the form of land, cash, produce, jewellery and constructions. The
Bhakti (devotional) movement was active during this time, and involved well known
Haridasas (devotee saints) of that time. Like the
Virashaiva movement of the 12th century, this movement presented another strong current of devotion, pervading the lives of millions. The Haridasas represented two groups, the
Vyasakuta and
Dasakuta, the former being required to be proficient in the
Vedas,
Upanishads and other
Darshanas, while the
Dasakuta merely conveyed the message of Madhvacharya through the Kannada language to the people in the form of devotional songs (
Devaranamas and
Kirthanas). The philosophy of Madhvacharya was spread by eminent disciples such as
Naraharitirtha,
Jayatirtha,
Sripadaraya,
Vyasatirtha,
Vadirajatirtha and others. Vyasatirtha, the
guru (teacher) of Vadirajatirtha,
Purandaradasa (
Pitamaha or "Father of Carnatic music") and
Kanakadasa earned the devotion of Emperor Krishnadevaraya. The emperor considered the saint his
Kuladevata (family deity) and honoured him in his writings. During this time, another great composer of early carnatic music,
Annamacharya composed hundreds of
Kirthanas in
Telugu at
Tirupati in present-day
Andhra Pradesh. '' monolith at Hampi The defeat of the
Jain Western Ganga Dynasty by the Cholas in the early 11th century and the rising numbers of followers of Vaishnava Hinduism and Virashaivism in the 12th century was mirrored by a decreased interest in Jainism. Two notable locations of Jain worship in the Vijayanagara territory were
Shravanabelagola and
Kambadahalli.
Islamic contact with South India began as early as the seventh century, a result of trade between the Southern kingdoms and
Arab lands.
Jumma Masjids existed in the Rashtrakuta empire by the tenth century and many mosques flourished on the
Malabar coast by the early 14th century. Muslim settlers married local women; their children were known as
Mappillas (
Moplahs) and were actively involved in
horse trading and manning shipping fleets. The interactions between the Vijayanagara Empire and the Bahmani Sultanate to the north increased the presence of Muslims in the south. In the early 15th century,
Deva Raya built a mosque for the Muslims in Vijayanagara and placed a Quran before his throne. The introduction of Christianity began as early as the eighth century as shown by the finding of
copper plates inscribed with land grants to Malabar Christians. Christian travelers wrote of the scarcity of
Christians in South India in the Middle Ages, promoting its attractiveness to missionaries. The arrival of the
Portuguese in the 15th century and their connections through trade with the empire, the propagation of the faith by
Francis Xavier (1545) and later the presence of
Dutch settlements fostered the growth of Christianity in the south.
Epigraphs and monetization Stone inscriptions were the most common form of documents used on temple walls, boundary of properties and open places for public display. Another form of documentation was on copper plates that were meant for record keeping. Usually verbose inscriptions included information such as a salutation, a
panegyric of the emperor or local ruler, the name of the donor, nature of the endowment (generally either cash or produce), the manner in which the grant would be used, obligations of the donee, share received by the donor and a concluding statement that officiated the entire donation and its obligations. Some inscriptions record an instance of victory in war or religious festival, and retribution or a curse on those who do not honor the grant. Most Vijayanagara inscriptions recovered so far are in Kannada, Telugu and Tamil, and a few in Sanskrit. According to
Suryanath U. Kamath about 7000 stone inscriptions, half of which are in Kannada, and about 300 copper plates which are mostly in Sanskrit, have been recovered. Bilingual inscriptions had lost favor by the 14th century. According to Mack, the majority of the inscriptions recovered are from the rule of the Tuluva dynasty (from 1503 to 1565) with the Saluva dynasty (from 1485 to 1503) inscribing the least in its brief control over the empire. The Sangama dynasty (from 1336 to 1485) which ruled the longest produced about one third of all epigraphs inscribed during the Tuluva period. Despite the popularity of Telugu language as a literary medium, the majority of the epigraphs in the language were inscribed in the limited period from 1500 to 1649. Talbot explains this scenario as one of shifting political solidarity. The Vijayanagara Empire was originally founded in Karnataka, with Andhra Pradesh serving as a province of the empire. After its defeat to the Deccan sultanates in 1565 and the sacking of the royal capital Vijayanagara, the diminished empire moved its capital to Southern Andhra Pradesh, creating an enterprise dominated by Telugu language. The Persian visitor Abdur Razzak wrote in his travelogues that the empire enjoyed a high level of monetization. This is especially evident from the number of temple cash grants that were made. Coins were minted using gold, silver, copper and brass and their value depended on material weight. Coins were minted by the state, in the provinces and by merchant guilds. Foreign currency was in circulation. The highest denomination was the gold
Varaha (or
Hun/Honnu,
Gadyana) weighted 50.65 53 grains. The
Partab or
Pratapa was valued at half a
Varaha. The
Fanam ( or Phanam,
Hana), an alloy of gold and copper was the most common currency valued at a third of the
Varaha. A
Tar made of pure silver was a sixth of a
Phanam and a
Chital made of brass was a third of the
Tar.
Haga,
Visa and
Kasu were also coins of lower denominations.
Literature During the rule of the Vijayanagara Empire, poets, scholars and philosophers wrote primarily in Kannada, Telugu and Sanskrit, and also in other regional languages such as Tamil and covered such subjects as religion, biography,
Prabandha (fiction), music, grammar, poetry, medicine and mathematics. The administrative and court language of the empire was Kannada. However, Telugu language gained cultural and literary prominence during the reign of the last Vijayanagara emperors, especially Krishnadevaraya. Most
Sanskrit works were commentaries either on the
Vedas or on the
Ramayana and
Mahabharata epics, written by well known figures such as
Sayanacharya (who wrote a treatise on the Vedas called
Vedartha Prakasha whose English translation by Max Muller appeared in 1856), and
Vidyaranya that extolled the superiority of the
Advaita philosophy over other rival Hindu philosophies. Other writers were famous
Dvaita saints of the
Udupi order such as
Jayatirtha (earning the title
Tikacharya for his polemical writings), Vyasatirtha who wrote rebuttals to the Advaita philosophy and of the conclusions of earlier logicians, and
Vadirajatirtha and
Sripadaraya both of whom criticized the beliefs of
Adi Sankara. Apart from these saints, noted Sanskrit scholars adorned the courts of the Vijayanagara kings and their feudal chiefs. Some members of the royal family were writers of merit and authored important works such as
Jambavati Kalyana by Emperor Krishnadevaraya, and
Madura Vijayam (also known as
Veerakamparaya Charita) by Princess
Gangadevi, a daughter-in-law of Emperor
Bukka I, dwells on the conquest of the
Madurai Sultanate by the Vijayanagara Empire. The
Kannada poets and scholars of the empire produced important writings supporting the Vaishnava
Bhakti movement heralded by the Haridasas (devotees of Vishnu),
Brahminical and Veerashaiva (
Lingayatism) literature. The Haridasa poets celebrated their devotion through songs called
Devaranama (lyrical poems) in the native meters of
Sangatya (quatrain),
Suladi (beat based),
Ugabhoga (melody based) and
Mundige (cryptic). Their inspirations were the teachings of
Madhvacharya and
Vyasatirtha.
Purandaradasa and
Kanakadasa are considered the foremost among many
Dasas (devotees) by virtue of their immense contribution.
Kumara Vyasa, the most notable of Brahmin scholars wrote
Gadugina Bharata, a translation of the epic
Mahabharata. This work marks a transition of Kannada literature from old Kannada to modern Kannada.
Chamarasa was a famous Veerashaiva scholar and poet who had many debates with Vaishnava scholars in the court of Devaraya II. His
Prabhulinga Leele, later translated into Telugu and Tamil, was a eulogy of Saint
Allama Prabhu (the saint was considered an incarnation of Lord
Ganapathi while
Parvati took the form of a princess of Banavasi). At this peak of
Telugu literature, the most famous writing in the
Prabandha style was
Manucharitamu. Emperor Krishnadevaraya was an accomplished Telugu scholar and wrote the
Amuktamalyada, a story of the wedding of the god
Vishnu to
Andal, the Tamil
Alvar saint poet and the daughter of
Periyalvar at
Srirangam. In his court were eight famous scholars regarded as the pillars (
Ashtadiggajas) of the literary assembly. The most famous among them were
Allasani Peddana who held the honorific
Andhrakavitapitamaha (
lit, "father of Telugu poetry") and
Tenali Ramakrishna who authored several notable works. The other six poets were
Nandi Thimmana (Mukku Timmana),
Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra,
Madayyagari Mallana,
Bhattu Murthi (Ramaraja Bhushana),
Pingali Surana, and
Dhurjati.
Srinatha, who wrote books such as
Marutratcharitamu and
Salivahana-sapta-sati, was patronised by Emperor Devaraya II and enjoyed the same status as important ministers in the court. Most
Tamil literature from this period came from Tamil-speaking regions, which were ruled by the feudatory Pandya who gave particular attention to the cultivation of Tamil literature. Although
Kannada,
Telugu, and
Sanskrit dominated the courtly and administrative functions of the empire,
Tamil literature also thrived, especially in the southern regions ruled by the Vijayanagara Empire. Many
Tamil poets and scholars were patronized by both the kings and regional feudatories. Tamil literature during this period was primarily devotional, reflecting the continuing influence of the
Bhakti movement. Both
Shaiva and
Vaishnava traditions were supported, with temples like
Srirangam playing a central role in the propagation of Tamil religious texts.
Krishnadevaraya, in particular, was known for his support of
Tamil Vaishnava literature. The
Vaishnava poet Haridasa composed the Irusamaya Vilakkam, a comparative study of
Shaivism and Vaishnavism, highlighting the preference for Vaishnava philosophy under the king’s patronage. Other significant Tamil scholars included
Svarupananda Desikar, who wrote the Sivaprakasap-perundirattu, an anthology of verses on
Advaita philosophy, and his pupil
Tattuvarayar, who composed Kurundirattu, a shorter anthology of verses. Additionally,
Tamil literature during this period included devotional hymns in praise of
Alvars and
Nayanmars. Texts such as the
Divya Prabandham and
Tevaram continued to be revered and performed in temples under the auspices of the empire. Notable among secular writings on music and medicine were Vidyaranya's
Sangitsara,
Praudha Raya's
Ratiratnapradipika, Sayana's
Ayurveda Sudhanidhi and
Lakshmana Pandita's
Vaidyarajavallabham. The
Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics flourished during this period with scholars such as
Madhava, who made important contributions to trigonometry and calculus, and
Nilakantha Somayaji, who postulated on the orbitals of planets.
Architecture '' at the Vittala temple in Hampi Vijayanagara architecture, according to art critic
Percy Brown is a vibrant combination and blossoming of the
Chalukya,
Hoysala,
Pandya and
Chola styles, idioms that prospered in previous centuries. Its legacy of sculpture, architecture and painting influenced the development of the arts long after the empire came to an end. Its stylistic hallmark is the ornate
pillared Kalyanamantapa (marriage hall),
Vasanthamantapa (open pillared halls) and the
Rayagopura (tower). Artisans used the locally available hard granite because of its durability since the empire was under constant threat of invasion. An open-air theatre of monuments at its capital at
Vijayanagara is a
UNESCO World Heritage Site. In the 14th century, the kings continued to build
vesara or Deccan-style monuments but later incorporated Dravida-style
gopuras to meet their ritualistic needs. The Prasanna Virupaksha temple (underground temple) of
Bukka and the Hazare Rama temple of
Deva Raya are examples of Deccan architecture. The varied and intricate ornamentation of the pillars is a mark of their work. At
Hampi, the
Vitthala and
Hazara Ramaswamy temples are examples of their pillared
Kalyanamantapa style. A visible aspect of their style is their return to the simplistic and serene art developed by the
Chalukya dynasty. The
Vitthala temple took several decades to complete during the reign of the
Tuluva kings. ''. The temple was rebuilt by the Nayaks rulers under the Vijayanagara Empire Another element of the Vijayanagara style is the carving and consecration of large
monoliths such as the
Sasivekaalu (
mustard)
Ganesha and
Kadalekaalu (
ground nut) Ganesha at Hampi, the
Gommateshwara (
Bahubali) monoliths in
Karkala and
Venur, and the
Nandi bull in
Lepakshi. The Vijayanagara temples of
Kolar,
Kanakagiri,
Sringeri and other towns of Karnataka; the temples of
Tadpatri, Lepakshi,
Ahobilam,
Tirumala Venkateswara Temple and
Srikalahasti in
Andhra Pradesh; and the temples of
Vellore,
Kumbakonam,
Kanchi and
Srirangam in
Tamil Nadu are examples of this style. Vijayanagara art includes wall-paintings such as the
Dashavatara and
Girijakalyana (marriage of
Parvati, Shiva's consort) in the
Virupaksha Temple at
Hampi, the
Shivapurana murals (tales of Shiva) at the
Virabhadra temple at Lepakshi, and those at the Kamaakshi and Varadaraja temples at Kanchi. This mingling of the South Indian styles resulted in a new idiom of art not seen in earlier centuries, a focus on
reliefs in addition to sculpture differing from that previously in India. An aspect of Vijayanagara architecture that shows the cosmopolitanism of the great city is the presence of many secular structures bearing Islamic features. While political history concentrates on the ongoing conflict between the Vijayanagara Empire and the Deccan sultanates, the architectural record reflects a more creative interaction. There are many
arches,
domes and
vaults that show these influences. The concentration of structures like
pavilions,
stables and
towers suggests they were for use by royalty. The decorative details of these structures may have been absorbed into Vijayanagara architecture during the early 15th century, coinciding with the rule of Deva Raya I and Deva Raya II. These kings are known to have employed many Muslims in their army and court, some of whom may have been
Muslim architects. This harmonious exchange of architectural ideas must have happened during rare periods of peace between the Hindu and Muslim kingdoms. The "Great Platform" (
Mahanavami Dibba) has relief carvings in which the figures seem to have the facial features of central Asian Turks who were known to have been employed as royal attendants. ==Travellers and sources==