Napoleonic Wars 's retreat from Russia in 1812. The war is turning decisively against the French Empire. The Napoleonic Wars were a series of major conflicts from 1803 to 1815 pitting the
French Empire and its allies, led by
Napoleon I, against a fluctuating array of
European powers formed into various coalitions, financed and usually led by the
United Kingdom. The wars stemmed from the unresolved disputes associated with the
French Revolution and its
resultant conflict. In the aftermath of the
French Revolution,
Napoleon Bonaparte gained power in France in 1799. In 1804, he crowned himself
Emperor of the French. In 1805, the French victory over an Austrian-Russian army at the
Battle of Austerlitz ended the
War of the Third Coalition. As a result of the
Treaty of Pressburg, the
Holy Roman Empire was dissolved. Later efforts were less successful. In the
Peninsular War, France unsuccessfully attempted to establish
Joseph Bonaparte as King of Spain. In 1812, the
French invasion of Russia had massive French casualties, and was a turning point in the
Napoleonic Wars., Emperor of the
First French EmpireIn 1814, after defeat in the
War of the Sixth Coalition, Napoleon abdicated and was exiled to
Elba. Later that year, he escaped exile and began the
Hundred Days before finally being defeated at the
Battle of Waterloo and exiled to
Saint Helena, an island in the
South Atlantic Ocean. After Napoleon's defeat, the
Congress of Vienna was held to determine new national borders. The
Concert of Europe attempted to preserve this settlement was established to preserve these borders, with limited impact.
Latin American independence , 18 February 1818
Mexico and the majority of the countries in
Central America and
South America obtained independence from
colonial overlords during the 19th century. In 1804,
Haiti gained independence from France. In
Mexico, the
Mexican War of Independence was a decade-long conflict that ended in Mexican independence in 1821. Due to the Napoleonic Wars, the royal family of Portugal
relocated to Brazil from 1808 to 1821, leading to Brazil having a separate monarchy from Portugal. The
Federal Republic of Central America gained independence from Spain in 1821 and from Mexico in 1823. After several rebellions, by 1841 the federation had dissolved into the independent countries of
Guatemala,
El Salvador,
Honduras,
Nicaragua, and
Costa Rica. In 1830, the post-colonial nation of
Gran Colombia dissolved and the nations of
Colombia (including modern-day Panama),
Ecuador, and
Venezuela took its place.
Revolutions of 1848 . The
Revolutions of 1848 were a series of
political upheavals throughout
Europe in 1848. The revolutions were essentially
democratic and liberal in nature, with the aim of removing the old
monarchical structures and creating independent nation states. The first revolution began in
January in Sicily. Revolutions then spread across Europe after a separate revolution began in
France in February. Over 50 countries were affected, but with no coordination or cooperation among their respective revolutionaries. According to Evans and von Strandmann (2000), some of the major contributing factors were widespread dissatisfaction with political leadership, demands for more participation in government and democracy, demands for freedom of the press, other demands made by the working class, the upsurge of nationalism, and the regrouping of established government forces.
Abolition and the American Civil War (1759–1833) was a leader of the movement to
abolish the slave trade. The
abolitionism movement achieved success in the 19th century. The
Atlantic slave trade was abolished in the United States in 1808, and by the end of the century, almost every government had banned slavery. The
Slavery Abolition Act 1833 banned slavery throughout the
British Empire, and the
Lei Áurea abolished slavery in Brazil in 1888.
Abolitionism in the United States continued until the end of the
American Civil War.
Frederick Douglass and
Harriet Tubman were two of many American abolitionists who helped win the fight against slavery. Douglass was an articulate orator and incisive antislavery writer, while Tubman worked with a network of antislavery activists and safe houses known as the
Underground Railroad. The American Civil War took place from 1861 to 1865. Eleven
southern states seceded from the
United States, largely over concerns related to slavery. In 1863, President
Abraham Lincoln issued the
Emancipation Proclamation. Lincoln issued a preliminary on September 22, 1862, warning that in all states still in rebellion (
Confederacy) on January 1, 1863, he would declare their slaves "then, thenceforward, and forever free." He did so. The
Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution, ratified in 1865, officially abolished slavery in the entire country. Five days after
Robert E. Lee surrendered at
Appomattox Courthouse, Virginia,
Lincoln was assassinated by actor and
Confederate sympathizer
John Wilkes Booth.
Decline of the Ottoman Empire of
Egypt, leader of the
Egyptian Army in the
Egyptian–Ottoman War (1831–1833) In 1817, the
Principality of Serbia became
suzerain from the Ottoman Empire, and in 1867, it passed a constitution that defined its independence from the Ottoman Empire. In 1830,
Greece became the first country to break away from the
Ottoman Empire after the
Greek War of Independence. In 1831, the
Bosnian Uprising against Ottoman rule occurred. In 1831, The
First Egyptian–Ottoman War (1831–1833) occurred, between the Ottoman Empire and Egypt brought about by
Muhammad Ali Pasha's demand to the Sublime Porte for control of Greater Syria, as reward for aiding the Sultan during the Greek War of Independence. As a result, Egyptian forces temporarily gained control of Syria, advancing as far north as
Kütahya. In 1876,
Bulgarians instigated the
April Uprising against Ottoman rule. Following the
Russo-Turkish War, the
Treaty of Berlin recognized the formal independence of Serbia,
Montenegro, and
Romania.
Bulgaria became autonomous.
China: Taiping Rebellion The
Taiping Rebellion was the bloodiest conflict of the 19th century, leading to the deaths of around 20–30 million people. Its leader,
Hong Xiuquan, declared himself the younger brother of
Jesus Christ and developed a new Chinese religion known as the
God Worshipping Society. After proclaiming the establishment of the
Taiping Heavenly Kingdom in 1851, the Taiping army conquered a large part of China, capturing
Nanjing in 1853. In 1864, after the death of Hong Xiuquan,
Qing forces recaptured Nanjing and ended the rebellion.
Japan: Meiji Restoration During the
Edo period,
Japan largely pursued an
isolationist foreign policy. In 1853, United States Navy Commodore
Matthew C. Perry threatened the Japanese capital
Edo with gunships, demanding that they agree to open trade. This led to
the opening of trade relations between Japan and foreign countries, with the policy of
Sakoku formally ended in 1854. By 1872, the Japanese government under
Emperor Meiji had
eliminated the daimyō system and established a strong central government. Further reforms included the abolition of the
samurai class, rapid industrialization and modernization of government, closely following European models.
Colonialism in
Algiers,
French Algeria in 1857 and the
East India Company sign the
Treaty of Bassein in 1802. •
1803: United States more than doubles in size when it buys out France's territorial claims in North America via the
Louisiana Purchase. This begins the U.S.'s westward expansion to the Pacific, referred to as its
Manifest Destiny, which involves
annexing and conquering land from Mexico, Britain, and Native Americans. •
1817 –
1819: British Empire annexed the
Maratha Confederacy after the
Third Anglo-Maratha War. •
1823 –
1887: British Empire annexed Burma (now also called
Myanmar) after three
Anglo-Burmese Wars. •
1848 –
1849:
Sikh Empire is defeated in the
Second Anglo-Sikh War. Therefore, the entire
Indian subcontinent is under British control. •
1862: France gained its first foothold in
Southeast Asia and in
1863 annexed
Cambodia. •
1867: United States
purchased Alaska from
Russia.
Africa In Africa, European exploration and technology led to the colonization of almost the entire continent by 1898. New medicines such as
quinine and more advanced
firearms allowed European nations to conquer native populations. Motivations for the
Scramble for Africa included national pride, desire for raw materials, and Christian missionary activity. Britain seized control of Egypt to ensure control of the
Suez Canal, but
Ethiopia defeated Italy in the
First Italo–Ethiopian War at the
Battle of Adwa. France, Belgium, Portugal, and Germany also had substantial colonies. The
Berlin Conference of 1884–1885 attempted to reach agreement on colonial borders in Africa, but disputes continued, both amongst European powers and in resistance by the native populations. •
1861–
1867:
French intervention in Mexico and the creation of the
Second Mexican Empire, ruled by
Maximilian I of Mexico and his consort
Carlota of Mexico. •
1863–
1865:
January Uprising against the
Russian Empire. •
1864–
1870:
Paraguayan War ends Paraguayan ambitions for expansion and destroys much of the Paraguayan population. •
1866:
Austro-Prussian War results in the dissolution of the
German Confederation and the creation of the
North German Confederation and the
Austrian-Hungarian Dual Monarchy. •
1868–
1869:
Boshin War results in end of the shogunate and the founding the Japanese Empire. •
1868–
1878:
Ten Years' War between
Cuba and
Spain. •
1870–
1871:
Franco-Prussian War results in the
unifications of Germany and
Italy, the collapse of the
Second French Empire and the emergence of a
New Imperialism. • 1870: Napoleon III abdicated after unsuccessful conclusion of Franco-Prussian War. Third Republic proclaimed. •
1876: The
April Uprising in
Bulgaria against the
Ottoman Empire. •
1879:
Anglo-Zulu War results in British victory and the annexation of the
Zulu Kingdom. •
1879–
1880:
Little War against Spanish rule in
Cuba leads to rebel defeat. •
1879–
1883:
Chile battles with
Peru and
Bolivia over Andean territory in the
War of the Pacific. •
1880–
1881:
First Boer War begins. •
1881–
1899:
Mahdist War in
Sudan., 1898. During the battle,
Winston Churchill took part in a cavalry charge. •
1882:
Anglo-Egyptian War British invasion and subsequent occupation of
Egypt •
1883–
1898:
Mandingo Wars between the
French colonial empire and the
Wassoulou Empire of the
Mandingo people led by
Samory Touré. •
1894–
1895: After the
First Sino-Japanese War, China cedes
Taiwan to Japan and grants Japan a free hand in Korea. •
1895:
Taiwan is ceded to the
Empire of Japan as a result of the
First Sino-Japanese War. •
1895–
1896:
Ethiopia defeats Italy in the
First Italo–Ethiopian War at the
Battle of Adwa. •
1895–
1898:
Cuban War for Independence results in Cuban independence from
Spain. •
1896–
1898:
Philippine Revolution results in a Filipino victory. •
1898:
Spanish–American War results in the independence of Cuba. •
1899–
1901:
Boxer Rebellion in China is suppressed by the
Eight-Nation Alliance. •
1899–
1902:
Thousand Days' War in
Colombia breaks out between the "
Liberales" and "
Conservadores", culminating with the loss of
Panama in 1903. •
1899–
1902:
Second Boer War begins. •
1899–
1902:
Philippine–American War begins. ==Science and technology==