Paleo-Indian period based on the
Out of Africa theory; figures are in thousands of years ago (kya) According to
North American archaeological and genetic evidence,
migration to North and South America made them the last continents in the world with
human habitation. During the
Wisconsin glaciation, 50,000–17,000 years ago, falling sea levels allowed people to move across the
Bering land bridge that joined Siberia to northwest North America (Alaska). Alaska was
ice-free because of
low snowfall, allowing a
small population to exist. The
Laurentide ice sheet covered most of Canada, blocking
nomadic inhabitants and confining them to Alaska (East Beringia) for thousands of years.
Indigenous genetic studies suggest that the first inhabitants of the Americas share a single ancestral population, one that developed in isolation, conjectured to be Beringia. The isolation of these peoples in Beringia might have lasted 10,000–20,000 years. Around 16,500 years ago, the
glaciers began melting, allowing people to move south and east into Canada and beyond. The first inhabitants of North America arrived in Canada at least 14,000 years ago. One route hypothesized is that people walked south by way of an ice-free corridor on the east side of the
Rocky Mountains, and then fanned out across North America before continuing on to South America. The other conjectured route is that they migrated, either on foot or using
primitive boats, down the Pacific coast to the tip of South America, and then crossed the Rockies and
Andes. Evidence of the latter has been covered by a
sea level rise of hundreds of metres following the last ice age. The
Old Crow Flats and basin was one of the areas in Canada untouched by glaciations during the
Pleistocene Ice ages, thus it served as a pathway and refuge for ice age plants and animals. The area holds evidence of early human habitation in Canada dating from about 12,000 years ago. Fossils from the area include some never accounted for in North America, such as
hyenas and large
camels.
Bluefish Caves is an archaeological site in
Yukon from which a specimen of apparently human-worked mammoth bone was radiocarbon dated to 12,000 years ago. Localized regional cultures developed from the time of the
Younger Dryas cold climate period from 12,900 to 11,500 years ago. The
Folsom tradition is characterized by the use of
Folsom points as projectile tips at archaeological sites. These tools assisted activities at kill sites that marked the slaughter and butchering of bison. The land bridge existed until 13,000–11,000 years ago, long after the oldest proven human settlements in the New World began. Lower sea levels in the
Queen Charlotte sound and
Hecate Strait produced great grass lands called
archipelago of Haida Gwaii.
Hunter-gatherers of the area left distinctive
lithic technology tools and the remains of large butchered mammals, occupying the area from 13,000–
9,000 years ago. The Paleo-Indians moved into new territory as it emerged from under the glaciers. Big game flourished in this new environment. The Plano culture is characterized by a range of projectile point tools collectively called
Plano points, which were used to hunt
bison. Their diets also included
pronghorn,
elk,
deer,
raccoon and
coyote. shown in red The vastness and variety of Canada's climates, ecology, vegetation,
fauna, and landform separations have defined ancient peoples implicitly into cultural or
linguistic divisions. Canada is surrounded north, east, and west with coastline and since the last ice age, Canada has consisted of distinct forest regions. Language contributes to the identity of a people by influencing social life ways and spiritual practices. The placement of artifacts and materials within an Archaic burial site indicated social differentiation based upon status. Archaeological sites at
Stave Lake,
Coquitlam Lake,
Fort Langley and region uncovered early period artifacts. These early inhabitants were highly mobile hunter-gatherers, consisting of about 20 to 50 members of an extended family. They were the earliest ancestors of the
Athabaskan-speaking peoples, including the
Navajo and
Apache. They had villages with large multi-family dwellings, used seasonally during the summer, from which they hunted, fished and gathered food supplies for the winter. The
Wendat peoples settled into
Southern Ontario along the
Eramosa River around 8,000–7,000 BCE (10,000–9,000 years ago). They were concentrated between
Lake Simcoe and
Georgian Bay. Wendat hunted caribou to survive on the glacier-covered land. Many different First Nations cultures relied upon the buffalo starting by 6,000–5,000 BCE (8,000–7,000 years ago). They hunted buffalo by herding migrating buffalo off cliffs.
Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump, near
Fort Macleod, Alberta, is a hunting grounds that was in use for about 5,000 years. site (
Copper Inuit) near the waters of
Cambridge Bay (
Victoria Island) By 7,000–5000 BCE (9,000–7,000 years ago) the
west coast of Canada saw various cultures who organized themselves around salmon fishing. The
Nuu-chah-nulth of
Vancouver Island began
whaling with advanced long spears at about this time. The
Maritime Archaic is one group of North America's
Archaic culture of
sea-mammal hunters in the
subarctic. They prospered from approximately 7,000 BCE–1,500 BCE (9,000–3,500 years ago) along the
Atlantic Coast of North America. Their settlements included
longhouses and boat-topped temporary or seasonal houses. They engaged in long-distance trade, using as currency white
chert, a rock quarried from northern
Labrador to
Maine. The
Pre-Columbian culture, whose members were called
Red Paint People, is indigenous to the
New England and
Atlantic Canada regions of North America. The culture flourished between 3,000 BCE – 1,000 BCE (5,000–3,000 years ago) and was named after their burial ceremonies, which used large quantities of red
ochre to cover bodies and grave goods. The
Arctic small tool tradition is a broad cultural entity that developed along the
Alaska Peninsula, around
Bristol Bay, and on the eastern shores of the Bering Strait around 2,500 BCE (4,500 years ago). The introduction of pottery distinguishes the Woodland culture from the earlier Archaic stage inhabitants.
Laurentian people of southern Ontario manufactured the oldest pottery excavated to date in Canada. The Hopewell tradition is an Indigenous culture that flourished along American rivers from 300 BCE – 500 CE. At its greatest extent, the
Hopewell Exchange System networked cultures and societies with the peoples on the Canadian shores of
Lake Ontario. Canadian expression of the Hopewellian peoples encompasses the
Point Peninsula,
Saugeen, and
Laurel complexes.
First Nations with his daughter in traditional
regalia, First Nations peoples had settled and established trade routes across what is now Canada by 500 BCE – 1,000 CE. Communities developed each with its own culture, customs, and character. In the northwest are the
Athapaskan speaking,
Slavey,
Tłı̨chǫ,
Tutchone, and
Tlingit. Along the Pacific coast are the
Tsimshian; Haida;
Coast Salish;
Kwakwakaʼwakw;
Heiltsuk;
Nootka;
Nisga'a;
Senakw and
Gitxsan. In the Plains are the
Niisitapi;
Káínawa;
Tsuutʼina; and
Piikáni. In the Northern Woodlands are the
Cree and
Chipewyan. Around the Great Lakes are the
Anishinaabe;
Algonquin;
Haudenosaunee and Wendat. Along the Atlantic Coast are the
Wolastoqiyik,
Innu,
Abenaki, and
Mi'kmaq and formerly the
Beothuk. Many First Nations civilizations established characteristics and hallmarks that included permanent urban settlements or cities, agriculture, civic and
monumental architecture, and
complex societal hierarchies. There are indications of contact made before
Christopher Columbus between the first peoples and those from other continents. Indigenous people in Canada first interacted with Europeans around 1000 CE, but prolonged contact came after Europeans established permanent settlements in the 17th and 18th centuries. Throughout the 16th century, European fleets made almost annual visits to the eastern shores of Canada to cultivate the fishing opportunities. A sideline industry emerged in the un-organized
traffic of furs overseen by the
British Indian Department. Prominent First Nations people include Joe Capilano, who met with King of the United Kingdom,
Edward VII, to speak of the need to settle
land claims and
Ovide Mercredi, a leader at both the
Meech Lake Accord constitutional reform discussions and
Oka Crisis.
Inuit Inuit are the descendants of what
anthropologists call the
Thule culture, which emerged from western Alaska around 1,000 CE and spread eastward across the
Arctic, displacing the
Dorset culture (in
Inuktitut, the
Tuniit). Inuit historically referred to the Tuniit as "giants", who were taller and stronger than the Inuit. Researchers hypothesize that the Dorset culture lacked dogs, larger weapons and other technologies used by the expanding Inuit society. By 1300, Inuit had settled in west Greenland, and finally moved into east Greenland over the following century. The Inuit had trade routes with more southern cultures. Boundary disputes were common and led to aggressive actions. in a
kayak, Warfare was common among Inuit groups with sufficient population density. Inuit, such as the
Nunamiut (
Uummarmiut) who inhabited the
Mackenzie River delta area, often engaged in common warfare. The Central Arctic Inuit lacked the population density to engage in warfare. In the 13th century, the Thule culture began arriving in Greenland from what is now Canada. Norse accounts are scant. Norse-made items from Inuit campsites in Greenland were obtained by either trade or plunder. One account,
Ívar Bárðarson, speaks of "small people" with whom the Norsemen fought. 14th-century accounts relate that a western settlement, one of the two Norse settlements, was taken over by the
Skræling. After the disappearance of the Norse colonies in Greenland, the Inuit had no contact with Europeans for at least a century. By the mid-16th century,
Basque fishers were already working the Labrador coast and had established whaling stations on land, such as those excavated at
Red Bay. The Inuit appear not to have interfered with their operations, but they did raid the stations in winter for tools, and particularly worked iron, which they adapted to native needs. Notable among the Inuit are
Abraham Ulrikab and family who became a
zoo exhibit in
Hamburg, Germany, and
Tanya Tagaq, a traditional
throat singer.
Abe Okpik was instrumental in helping Inuit obtain
surnames rather than
disc numbers and
Kiviaq (David Ward) won the legal right to use his single-word
Inuktitut name.
Métis fur trader, The
Métis are people descended from marriages between Europeans (mainly French) and
Cree,
Ojibwe,
Algonquin,
Saulteaux,
Menominee,
Mi'kmaq,
Maliseet, and other First Nations. Their history dates to the mid-17th century. The Métis homeland consists of the
Canadian provinces of
British Columbia,
Alberta,
Saskatchewan,
Manitoba, and
Ontario, as well as the
Northwest Territories (NWT). Amongst notable Métis people are singer and actor
Tom Jackson,
Commissioner of the Northwest Territories Tony Whitford, and
Louis Riel who led two resistance movements: the
Red River Rebellion of 1869–1870 and the
North-West Rebellion of 1885, which ended in his
trial and subsequent execution. The languages inherently Métis are either
Métis French or a mixed language called
Michif. Michif, Mechif or Métchif is a
phonetic spelling of Métif, a variant of Métis. The Métis today predominantly speak
English, with
French a strong second language, as well as numerous
Indigenous tongues. A 19th-century community of the Métis people, the
Anglo-Métis, were referred to as Countryborn. They were children of
Rupert's Land fur trade typically of
Orcadian, Scottish, or English paternal descent and Indigenous maternal descent. Their first languages would have been Indigenous (
Cree,
Saulteaux,
Assiniboine, etc.) and English. Their fathers often spoke
Gaelic or the
Orcadian dialect, thus leading to the development of an English dialect referred to as "
Bungi". S.35 of the
Constitution Act, 1982 mentions the Métis yet there has long been debate over legally defining the term Métis, but on September 23, 2003, the
Supreme Court of Canada ruled that Métis are a distinct people with significant rights (
Powley ruling). Unlike First Nations people, there has been no distinction between status and non-status Métis; the Métis, their heritage and Indigenous ancestry have often been absorbed and assimilated into their surrounding populations.
Forced assimilation From the late 18th century, European Canadians (and the Canadian government) encouraged
assimilation of Indigenous culture into what was referred to as "
Canadian culture." These attempts reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with a series of initiatives that aimed at complete assimilation and subjugation of the Indigenous peoples. These policies, which were made possible by legislation such as the
Gradual Civilization Act and the
Indian Act,
Christianization Indian Residential School in
Fort Resolution,
NWT| alt=Indigenous children working at long desks
Missionary work directed at the Indigenous people of Canada had been ongoing since the first missionaries arrived in the 1600s, generally from France, some of whom were martyred (
Jesuit saints called the
Canadian Martyrs).
Christianization as government policy became more systematic with the
Indian Act in 1876, which would bring new sanctions for those who did not
convert to Christianity. For example, the new laws would prevent non-Christian Indigenous people from testifying or having their cases heard in court, and ban alcohol consumption. When the
Indian Act was amended in 1884, traditional religious and social practices, such as the
Potlatch, would be banned, and further amendments in 1920 would prevent "
status Indians" (as defined in the
Act) from wearing traditional dress or performing traditional dances in an attempt to stop all non-Christian practices. When most of these model farming villages failed, With the creation of these reserves came many restricting laws, such as further bans on all intoxicants, restrictions on eligibility to vote in band elections, decreased hunting and fishing areas, and inability for status Indians to visit other groups on their reserves. This was implemented largely to limit the competitiveness of First Nations farming. Through the
Gradual Civilization Act in 1857, the government would encourage Indians (i.e., First Nations) to
enfranchise – to ''remove all legal distinctions between [Indians] and Her Majesty's other Canadian Subjects
. However, they were often still defined as non-citizens'' by Europeans, and those few who did enfranchise were often met with disappointment. While the schools provided some education, they were plagued by under-funding, disease, and abuse. According to some scholars, the Canadian government's laws and policies, including the residential school system, that encouraged or required Indigenous peoples to
assimilate into a
Eurocentric society, violated the
United Nations Genocide Convention that Canada signed in 1949 and passed through Parliament in 1952. Therefore, these scholars believe that Canada could be tried in
international court for
genocide. A legal case resulted in settlement of in 2006 and the 2008 establishment of the
Truth and Reconciliation Commission, which confirmed the injurious effect on children of this system and turmoil created between Indigenous peoples and non-Indigenous peoples. In 2008, Prime Minister
Stephen Harper issued an apology on behalf of the Canadian government and its citizens for the residential school system. ==Politics, law, and legislation==