Spice When the resin is sold in solid chunks, it is typically first broken up and ground in a
mortar and pestle with an absorbent material such as
rice flour. The resulting powder is then fried in oil or soaked in water, a process that produces an aroma reminiscent of onion or garlic. The use of compounded asafoetida reduces the risk of excessive dosing, as only very small amounts are required: approximately one sixteenth of a
teaspoon is sufficient to season a dish for one person. In powdered form, the spice retains its aroma for several years, while the pure resin can preserve its aromatic properties for decades. The odour of the pure resin is so strong that the pungent smell will contaminate other spices stored nearby if it is not stored in an airtight container. Whether silphium truly disappeared in the 1st century or became prohibitively expensive, it appears to have been interchangeable with asafoetida in
ancient Roman cuisine. Both substances were used to flavour a wide variety of dishes, and their culinary role has been compared to that of the onion in modern European cooking. According to the recipe collection
The Art of Cooking by Apicius, compiled at the end of the 4th century,
laser "from Cyrenaica or from the
Parthians" was dissolved either alone in
garum (fish sauce) and
vinegar, or combined with
pepper,
parsley,
mint, and
honey. It was also recommended to store it in a jar with
pine nuts, using the nuts gradually while replacing them with fresh ones to conserve the costly spice. In the
Near East during the
Talmudic period, asafoetida was commonly used both as a seasoning and as a remedy. Typical preparations involved dissolving it in cold or hot water, or in vinegar. Asafoetida and garum appear to have fallen out of common culinary use in the early
Middle Ages, possibly replaced by new ingredients such as
almond milk or by evolving combinations of
spices and
herbs. Border conflicts between
Rome and the
Sasanian Persia may also have restricted resin imports or significantly increased their cost. Asafoetida later reappeared in European
pharmacopoeias under the influence of Arabic medicine, but it appears to have been less commonly used as a culinary ingredient. Nevertheless, recipes incorporating the resin are found in the
Kitāb al-ṭabīẖ, a 13th-century collection from
Muslim Iberia, as well as in the dietary guidance of
Maimonides in the
Mishneh Torah, indicating its continued presence in medieval Mediterranean cuisines. In the modern period, however, most culinary traditions involving asafoetida are associated with Asian cuisines. .|alt=Various spices of different colours, whole or ground, arranged in small piles on a white plate. In
Indian cuisine, asafoetida is widely used to flavour curries, soups, sauces, and
pickles, most often in combination with other allium-like aromatics. In southern regions of the subcontinent, it is commonly used in vegetarian dishes such as
sambar,
rasam, and certain
lentil-based curries. It is also sometimes added to fish dishes and is used in the preparation of
papadums, flatbreads made from
urad bean flour. Asafoetida is also a component of traditional
spice mixes such as
chaat masala. In addition, it is an essential seasoning in
chivda, a category of snack mixes originating in
Bombay. The resin continues to be used as a substitute for garlic or onion by certain communities that avoid these foods, including
Jains, who refrain from eating roots, and some
Brahmins, who traditionally regard garlic as a prohibited
aphrodisiac. Asafoetida is quickly heated in hot oil before it is sprinkled on the food, a practice known as
tempering. Young plant parts and roots are also used to produce a sweet preparation known as [tochop]. These are boiled for several hours until the liquid thickens into a dense, dark brown to black mass resembling
molasses. The mixture is strained to remove fibrous residues, which are used as animal feed. The
tochop is then seasoned with butter or melted sheep fat and eaten with bread. Asafoetida was also used by
Kazakhs in
Xinjiang (China), as well as by
Dungans and
Uyghurs living in Kazakhstan. Because of its strong odour, it was not added directly to dishes; instead, a piece of resin was used to draw one or two lines on the bottom of the cooking vessel before adding rice, vegetables, and meat. This technique was sufficient to impart an allium-like flavour to the dish. Despite its very small proportion, this amount contributes to the characteristic flavour of the sauce.
Botanical drug ('''', ,
Florence).The presence of a dog may allude to veterinary uses.|alt=Color drawing of a shrub with oval, entire leaves showing incisions on the trunk from which whitish resin droplets exude. Behind the plant, a running dog, and to the right, a woman's face, both holding a piece of resin. The medicinal uses of asafoetida as a
botanical drug are long-standing and widespread. Several
Assyriologists, including
Reginald Campbell Thompson have suggested that the resin was already known in . Its introduction into the Mediterranean world has been debated, but it is generally considered likely that the “Medican juice” described by
Dioscorides gradually replaced Libyan
silphium, which had been praised by
Hippocrates,
Aristotle and
Theophrastus for similar therapeutic uses. In the
Orient, asafoetida is reported in foundational Ayurvedic texts such as the
Charaka Samhita and the
Sushruta Samhita from the early
Common Era. Around the same period, the
Talmud refers to the resin, notably as a treatment for “heaviness [pain] of the heart”, while also noting potential risks associated with its use. Persian medical writings by
Rhazes and
Avicenna describe it as a long-established medicinal substance, and these accounts continue to inform Iranian traditional practices and
Unani medicine.
Traditional Chinese medicine adopted the resin under Indian and Persian influence, and its properties were described by
Li Shizhen in the
Compendium of Materia Medica at the end of the . In Western medicine, asafoetida was transmitted from medieval herbals into early modern pharmacopoeias and formed part of standard medical practice until the development of
pharmaceutical chemistry. It is now mainly regarded as a traditional remedy. In France, asafoetida is included in List A of medicinal plants, for which sale is restricted to pharmacists, and is indicated for use in traditional European and
overseas medicine. The principal traditional indications for the resin concern the
gastrointestinal tract. In European, Iranian and Indian traditions, it is described as a
carminative and
antispasmodic. An aqueous extract of the dried gum has also been administered orally as an
anthelmintic, while Chinese medicine employs it as an intestinal
antiparasitic. In Ayurveda, it is recommended roasted in
ghee (clarified butter) for flatulence and related gastrointestinal complaints, a preparation believed to reduce irritation. Asafoetida has likewise been used in
veterinary medicine for similar purposes.
Garcia de Orta recounts the following anecdote: Asafoetida has also been traditionally associated with
expectorant effects and uses related to the
respiratory system. In Ayurvedic and Iranian traditions, it is described as beneficial in cases of
asthma. It has been used in Afghanistan, India and Saudi Arabia in the treatment of
whooping cough and
bronchitis. In ancient Rome, it is reported to have replaced
silphium in treatments for
tuberculosis and chronic
coughs. Sedative or calming properties have also been attributed to it: it has been consumed in India and Afghanistan for
hysteria, and regarded as a
sedative in Nepal. Its use has also been reported in traditional Iranian and Moroccan medicine for
epilepsy, the latter recommending chewing the gum. Asafoetida has further been employed in contexts related to
sexual health and
reproductive medicine. It has a long-standing reputation as an
aphrodisiac and has been reported as such in Brazil and the United States. In India, a hot extract has been used as an
emmenagogue, while in Malaysia the gum has been chewed in cases of
amenorrhea. A study of traditional
birth control practices in
Alexandria (Egypt) during the 1970s found that more than half of the women surveyed reported using asafoetida as a
contraceptive, applied to the vaginal walls shortly before or after sexual intercourse. During the
influenza pandemic following
World War I, the resin also gained some popularity as an
antiviral remedy, for reasons that remain unclear. Finally, asafoetida has been used externally in a variety of traditional applications. Iranian medical practice prescribes it mixed with
honey for toothache, in
olive oil for relief of
otitis pain, as a
cerate for
corns and
warts, and as a
poultice in the treatment of
alopecia. == Perfume and incense ==