In
Christianity, God is the
creator and preserver of the universe. God is presented as a father figure to humanity. God is the
sole ultimate power in the universe but is distinct from it. The
Bible never speaks of God as impersonal. Instead, it refers to him in
personal terms – who speaks, sees, hears, acts, and loves. God is understood to have a
will and personality and is an
all powerful,
divine and
benevolent being. He is represented in
Scripture as being primarily concerned with people and their salvation.
Enumeration Some attributes ascribed to God in Christian theology are: •
Aseity—That "God is so independent that he does not need us." It is based on
Acts 17:25, where it says that God "is not served by human hands, as if he needed anything" (
NIV). This is often related to God's
self-existence and his
self-sufficiency. •
Eternity—That God exists beyond the
temporal realm. •
Graciousness—That God extends His favor and gifts to human beings unconditionally as well as conditionally. •
Holiness—That God is separate from sin and incorruptible. Noting the refrain of "
Holy, holy, holy" in
Isaiah 6:3 and
Revelation 4:8, •
Immanence—That although God is
transcendent and holy, He is also accessible and can be dynamically experienced. •
Immutability—That God's essential nature is unchangeable. •
Impassibility—That God does not experience emotion or suffering (a more controversial doctrine, disputed especially by
open theism). •
Impeccability—That God is incapable of error (
sin). •
Incorporeality—That God is without physical composition. A related concept is the
spirituality of God, which is derived from
Jesus' statement in
John 4:24, "God is spirit." •
Love—That God is care and compassion.
1 John 4:16 says "God is love." •
Mission—That God is the supreme liberator. While the
Mission of God is not traditionally included in this list,
David Bosch has argued that "
mission is not primarily an activity of the church, but an attribute of God." •
Omnibenevolence—That God is omnibenevolent.
Omnibenevolence of God refers to him being "all good". •
Omnipotence—That God is supremely or all-powerful. •
Omnipresence—That God is the supreme being, existing everywhere and at all times; the all-perceiving or all-conceiving foundation of reality. •
Omniscience—That God is supremely or all-knowing. • Oneness—That God is without peer, also that every divine attribute is instantiated in its entirety (the qualitative
infinity of God). See also
Monotheism and
Divine simplicity. •
Providence—That God watches over His creation with interest and dedication. While the
Providence of God usually refers to his activity in the world, it also implies his care for the universe, and is thus an attribute. A distinction is usually made between "general providence" which refers to God's continuous upholding the existence and natural order of the universe, and "special providence" which refers to God's extraordinary intervention in the life of people. See also
Sovereignty. •
Righteousness—That God is the greatest or only measure of human conduct. The righteousness of God may refer to his holiness, to his
justice, or to his saving activity through Christ. •
Transcendence—That God exists beyond the natural realm of physical laws and thus is not bound by them; He is also wholly
Other and
incomprehensible apart from
general or
special self-revelation. •
Triune—The Christian God is understood (by trinitarian Christians) to be a "threeness" of
Father,
Son, and
Holy Spirit that is fully consistent with His "oneness"; a single infinite being who is both within and beyond nature. Because the persons of the
Trinity represent a personal relation even on the level of God to Himself, He is personal both in His relation toward us and in His relation toward Himself. •
Veracity—That God is the Truth all human beings strive for; He is also impeccably honest.
Titus 1:2 refers to "God, who does not lie." •
Wisdom—That God fully comprehends
human nature and the world, and will see His will accomplished in heaven and on earth.
Romans 16:27 speaks about the "only wise God".
Monotheism , 1890 Some Christians believe that the God worshiped by the Hebrew people of the pre-Christian era had always revealed himself as he did through
Jesus; but that this was never obvious until Jesus was born (see
John 1). Also, though the
Angel of the Lord spoke to the Patriarchs, revealing God to them, some believe it has always been only through the
Spirit of God granting them understanding, that men have been able to perceive later that God himself had visited them. This belief gradually developed into the modern formulation of the
Trinity, which is the doctrine that God is a single entity (
Yahweh), but that there is a trinity in God's single being, the meaning of which has always been debated. This mysterious "Trinity" has been described as
hypostases in the
Greek language (
subsistences in
Latin), and "persons" in English. Nonetheless, Christians stress that they only believe in one God. Most Christian churches teach the Trinity, as opposed to Unitarian monotheistic beliefs. Historically, most Christian churches have taught that the nature of God is a
mystery, something that must be revealed by
special revelation rather than deduced through
general revelation. Christian orthodox traditions (Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Protestant) follow this idea, which was codified in 381 and reached its full development through the work of the
Cappadocian Fathers. They consider God to be a
triune entity, called the Trinity, comprising the three "Persons";
God the Father,
God the Son, and
God the Holy Spirit, described as being "of the same substance" (). The true nature of an infinite God, however, is commonly described as beyond definition, and the word 'person' is an imperfect expression of the idea. Some critics contend that because of the adoption of a tripartite conception of deity, Christianity is a form of
tritheism or
polytheism. This concept dates from
Arian teachings which claimed that Jesus, having appeared later in the Bible than his Father, had to be a secondary, lesser, and therefore distinct god. For
Jews and
Muslims, the idea of God as a trinity is
heretical– it is considered akin to
polytheism. Christians overwhelmingly assert that monotheism is central to the Christian faith, as the very
Nicene Creed (among others) which gives the orthodox Christian definition of the Trinity does begin with: "I believe in one God". In the 3rd century,
Tertullian claimed that God exists as the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit—the three personae of one and the same substance. To trinitarian Christians God the Father is not at all a separate god from God the Son (of whom
Jesus is the incarnation) and the Holy Spirit, the other
hypostases (Persons) of the
Christian Godhead. The doctrine states that
God is the Triune God, existing as three
persons, or in the
Greek hypostases, but one being. Personhood in the Trinity does not match the common Western understanding of "person" as used in the English language—it does not imply an "individual, self-actualized center of free will and conscious activity." To the ancients, personhood "was in some sense individual, but always in community as well." the doctrine of the Trinity has been stated as "the one God exists in three Persons and
one substance, Father, Son, and Holy Spirit." This doctrine contrasts with
Nontrinitarian positions which include
Unitarianism,
Oneness and
Modalism. A small minority of Christians hold non-trinitarian views, largely coming under the heading of
Unitarianism. Most, if not all, Christians believe that God is spirit, an uncreated,
omnipotent, and eternal being, the creator and sustainer of all things, who works the redemption of the world through his Son, Jesus Christ. With this background, belief in the
divinity of Christ and the Holy Spirit is expressed as the doctrine of the
Trinity, which describes the single divine
ousia (substance) existing as three distinct and inseparable
hypostases (persons): the
Father, the Son (
Jesus Christ the
Logos), and the
Holy Spirit. The Trinitarian doctrine is considered by most Christians to be a core tenet of their faith.
Nontrinitarians typically hold that God, the Father, is supreme; that Jesus, although still divine Lord and Saviour, is the
Son of God; and that the Holy Spirit is a phenomenon akin to God's will on Earth. The holy three are separate, yet the Son and the Holy Spirit are still seen as originating from God the Father. The
New Testament does not have the term "Trinity" and nowhere discusses the Trinity as such. Some emphasize, however, that the New Testament does repeatedly speak of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit to "compel a trinitarian understanding of God." The doctrine developed from the biblical language used in New Testament passages such as the baptismal formula in and by the end of the
4th century it was widely held in its present form.
God the Father In many
monotheist religions, God is addressed as the father, in part because of his active interest in human affairs, in the way that a father would take an interest in his children who are dependent on him and as a father, he will respond to humanity, his children, acting in their best interests. In Christianity, God is called "Father" in a more literal sense, besides being the creator and nurturer of creation, and the provider for his children. The Father is said to be in unique relationship with his only begotten (
monogenes) son,
Jesus Christ, which implies an exclusive and intimate familiarity: "No one knows the Son except the Father, and no one knows the Father except the Son and any one to whom the Son chooses to reveal him." In Christianity, God the Father's relationship with humanity is as a father to children—in a previously unheard-of sense—and not just as the creator and nurturer of creation, and the provider for his children, his people. Thus, humans, in general, are sometimes called
children of God. To Christians, God the Father's relationship with humanity is that of Creator and created beings, and in that respect he is the father of all. The New Testament says, in this sense, that the very idea of family, wherever it appears, derives its name from God the Father, and thus God himself is the model of the family. However, there is a deeper "legal" sense in which Christians believe that they are made participants in the special relationship of Father and Son, through Jesus Christ as his spiritual
bride. Christians call themselves
adopted children of God. In the New Testament, God the Father has a special role in his relationship with the person of the Son, where Jesus is believed to be his Son and his heir. According to the
Nicene Creed, the Son (Jesus Christ) is "eternally begotten of the Father", indicating that their divine Father-Son relationship is not tied to an event within time or human history.
See Christology. The Bible refers to Christ, called "
The Word" as present at the beginning of God's creation., not a creation himself, but equal in the personhood of the Trinity. In
Eastern Orthodox theology, God the Father is the "principium" (
beginning), the "source" or "origin" of both the Son and the Holy Spirit, which gives intuitive emphasis to the threeness of persons; by comparison, Western theology explains the "origin" of all three
hypostases or persons as being in the divine nature, which gives intuitive emphasis to the
oneness of God's being.
Christology and Christ Christology is the field of study within Christian theology which is primarily concerned with the nature, person, and works of
Jesus Christ, held by Christians to be the
Son of God. Christology is concerned with the meeting of the human (
Son of Man) and divine (
God the Son or
Word of God) in the person of
Jesus. Primary considerations include the
Incarnation, the relationship of Jesus's nature and person with the nature and person of God, and the
salvific work of Jesus. As such, Christology is generally less concerned with the details of Jesus's life (what he did) or teaching than with who or what he is. There have been and are various perspectives by those who claim to be his followers since the church began after his ascension. The controversies ultimately focused on whether and how a
human nature and a
divine nature can co-exist in one person. The study of the inter-relationship of these two natures is one of the preoccupations of the majority tradition. Teachings about Jesus and testimonies about what he accomplished during his three-year public ministry are found throughout the
New Testament. Core biblical teachings about the person of Jesus Christ may be summarized that Jesus Christ was and forever is fully God (divine) and fully human in one sinless person at the same time, and that through the death and
resurrection of Jesus,
sinful humans can be reconciled to God and thereby are offered salvation and the promise of
eternal life via his
New Covenant. While there have been theological disputes over the nature of Jesus, Christians believe that Jesus is
God incarnate and "
true God and true man" (or both fully divine and fully human). Jesus, having become fully human in all respects, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, yet he did not sin. As fully God, he defeated death and rose to life again. Scripture asserts that Jesus was conceived, by the Holy Spirit, and
born of his
virgin mother Mary without a human father. The biblical accounts of Jesus's ministry include
miracles,
preaching, teaching, healing,
Death, and
resurrection. The apostle Peter, in what has become a famous proclamation of faith among Christians since the 1st century, said, "You are the Christ, the Son of the living God." Most Christians now wait for the
Second Coming of Christ when they believe he will fulfill the remaining
Messianic prophecies.
Christ Christ is the English term for the
Greek (
Khristós) meaning "
the anointed one". It is a translation of the
Hebrew (
Māšîaḥ), usually
transliterated into English as
Messiah. The word is often misunderstood to be the
surname of
Jesus due to the numerous mentions of
Jesus Christ in the Christian
Bible. The word is in fact used as a
title, hence its common reciprocal use
Christ Jesus, meaning Jesus the Anointed One or Jesus the Messiah. Followers of Jesus became known as
Christians because they believed that Jesus was the Christ, or Messiah,
prophesied about in the
Old Testament, or
Tanakh.
Trinitarian ecumenical councils The Christological controversies came to a head over the persons of the
Godhead and their relationship with one another. Christology was a fundamental concern from the
First Council of Nicaea (325) until the
Third Council of Constantinople (680). In this time period, the Christological views of various groups within the broader Christian community led to accusations of
heresy, and, infrequently, subsequent
religious persecution. In some cases, a sect's unique Christology is its chief distinctive feature, in these cases it is common for the sect to be known by the name given to its Christology. The decisions made at
First Council of Nicaea and re-ratified at the
First Council of Constantinople, after several decades of ongoing controversy during which the work of Athanasius and the
Cappadocian Fathers were influential. The language used was that the one God exists in three persons (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit); in particular it was affirmed that the Son was
homoousios (of one substance) with the Father. The
Creed of the Nicene Council made statements about the full divinity and full humanity of Jesus, thus preparing the way for discussion about how exactly the divine and human come together in the person of Christ (Christology). Nicaea insisted that Jesus was fully divine and also human. What it did not do was make clear how one person could be both divine and human, and how the divine and human were related within that one person. This led to the Christological controversies of the
4th and
5th centuries of the Christian era. The
Chalcedonian Creed did not put an end to all Christological debate, but it did clarify the terms used and became a point of reference for all other Christologies. Most of the major branches of Christianity—
Catholicism,
Eastern Orthodoxy,
Anglicanism,
Lutheranism, and
Reformed—subscribe to the Chalcedonian Christological formulation, while many branches of Eastern Christianity—
Syrian Orthodoxy,
Assyrian Church,
Coptic Orthodoxy,
Ethiopian Orthodoxy, and
Armenian Apostolicism—reject it.
Attributes of Christ God as Son According to the Bible, the second Person of the Trinity, because of his eternal relation to the first Person (God as Father), is the
Son of God. He is considered (by Trinitarians) to be coequal with the Father and Holy Spirit. He is
all God and all human: the Son of God as to his divine nature, while as to his human nature he is from the lineage of David. The core of Jesus's self-interpretation was his "filial consciousness", his relationship to God as child to parent in some unique sense (see
Filioque controversy). His
mission on earth proved to be that of enabling people to know God as their Father, which Christians believe is the essence of
eternal life. God the Son is the second person of the
Trinity in Christian theology. The
doctrine of the Trinity identifies
Jesus of
Nazareth as
God the Son,
united in essence but distinct in person with regard to
God the Father and God the
Holy Spirit (the first and third persons of the Trinity). God the Son is co-eternal with God the Father (and the Holy Spirit), both before Creation and after the End (see
Eschatology). So Jesus was always "God the Son", though not
revealed as such until he also became
the "Son of God" through
incarnation. "Son of God" draws attention to his humanity, whereas "God the Son" refers more generally to his divinity, including his pre-incarnate existence. So, in Christian theology, Jesus was always God the Son, though not
revealed as such until he also became the
Son of God through
incarnation. The exact phrase "God the Son" is not in the New Testament. Later theological use of this expression reflects what came to be standard interpretation of New Testament references, understood to imply Jesus's divinity, but the distinction of his person from that of the one God he called his Father. As such, the title is associated more with the development of the doctrine of the Trinity than with the
Christological debates. There are over 40 places in the New Testament where Jesus is given the title "the Son of God", but scholars do not consider this to be an equivalent expression. "God the Son" is rejected by
anti-trinitarians, who view this reversal of the most common term for Christ as a doctrinal perversion and as tending towards
tritheism. Matthew cites Jesus as saying, "Blessed are the peacemakers, for they will be called sons of God (5:9)." The
gospels go on to document a great deal of controversy over Jesus being
the Son of God, in a unique way. The book of the
Acts of the Apostles and the letters of the New Testament, however, record the early teaching of the first Christians– those who believed Jesus to be
both the Son of God, the Messiah, a man appointed by God, as well as God himself. This is evident in many places, however, the early part of the book of Hebrews addresses the issue in a deliberate, sustained argument, citing the scriptures of the Hebrew Bible as authorities. For example, the author quotes Psalm 45:6 as addressed by the God of Israel to Jesus. •
Hebrews 1:8. About the Son he says, "Your throne, O God, will last for ever and ever." The author of Hebrews' description of Jesus as the exact representation of the divine Father has parallels in a passage in
Colossians. • Colossians 2:9–10. "in Christ all the fullness of the Deity lives in bodily form" John's gospel quotes Jesus at length regarding his relationship with his heavenly Father. It also contains two famous attributions of divinity to Jesus. •
John 1:1. "the Word was God" [in context, the
Word is Jesus, see
Christ the Logos] •
John 20:28. "Thomas said to him, 'My Lord and my God! The most direct references to Jesus as God are found in various letters. •
Romans 9:5. "Christ, who is God over all" •
Titus 2:13. "our great God and Savior, Jesus Christ" •
2 Peter 1:1. "our God and Savior Jesus Christ" The biblical basis for later trinitarian statements in creeds is the early baptism formula found in Matthew 28. •
Matthew 28:19. Go and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name
[note the singular
] of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit. See also
Great Commission.
Person of Christ ;Only divine?
Docetism (from the Greek verb
to seem) taught that Jesus was fully divine, and his human body was only illusory. At a very early stage, various Docetic groups arose; in particular, the
gnostic sects which flourished in the 2nd century AD tended to have Docetic theologies. Docetic teachings were attacked by
St. Ignatius of Antioch (early 2nd century), and appear to be targeted in the canonical
Epistles of John (dates are disputed, but range from the late 1st century among traditionalist scholars to the late 2nd century among critical scholars). The Council of Nicaea rejected theologies that entirely ruled out any humanity in Christ, affirming in the
Nicene Creed the doctrine of the
Incarnation as a part of the doctrine of the
Trinity. That is, that the second person of the Trinity became incarnate in the person
Jesus and was fully human. ;Only human? The early centuries of Christian history also had groups at the other end of the spectrum, arguing that Jesus was an ordinary mortal. The
Adoptionists taught that Jesus was born fully human, and was adopted as
God's Son when
John the Baptist baptised him because of the
life he lived. Another group, known as the
Ebionites, taught that Jesus was not God, but the human
Moshiach (messiah, anointed) prophet promised in the
Hebrew Bible. Some of these views could be described as
Unitarianism (although that is a modern term) in their insistence on the oneness of God. These views, which directly affected how one understood the Godhead, were declared
heresies by the Council of Nicaea. Throughout much of the rest of the ancient history of Christianity, Christologies that denied Christ's divinity ceased to have a major impact on the life of the church. ;How can he be both? :;What sort of divinity?
Arianism affirmed that Jesus was divine, but taught that he was nevertheless a created being (
there was [a time] when he was not [in existence]), and was therefore less divine than God the Father. The matter boiled down to one iota; Arianism taught
Homoiousia—the belief that Jesus's divinity is
similar to that of God the Father—as opposed to
Homoousia—the belief that Jesus's divinity is the
same as that of God the Father.
Arius' opponents additionally included in the term
Arianism the belief that Jesus's divinity is
different from that of God the Father (
Heteroousia). Arianism was condemned by the Council of Nicea, but remained popular in the northern and western provinces of the empire, and continued to be the majority view of western Europe well into the 6th century. Indeed, even the Christian legend of Constantine's death-bed baptism involves a bishop who, in recorded history, was an Arian. In the modern era, a number of denominations have rejected the Nicene doctrine of the Trinity, including the
Christadelphians and the
Jehovah's Witnesses. ;What sort of amalgamation? The Christological debates following the Council of Nicaea sought to make sense of the interplay of the human and divine in the person of Christ while upholding the doctrine of the Trinity.
Apollinaris of Laodicea (310–390) taught that in Jesus, the divine component took the place of the human
nous (
thinking– not to be confused with
thelis, meaning
intent). This however was seen as a denial of Jesus's true humanity, and the view was condemned at the
First Council of Constantinople. Subsequently,
Nestorius of Constantinople (386–451) initiated a view that effectively separated Jesus into two persons—one divine and one human; the mechanism of this combination is known as
hypostases, and contrasts with
hypostasis—the view that there is no separation. Nestorius' theology was deemed heretical at the
First Council of Ephesus (431). Though, as seen by the writings of
Babai the Great, the Christology of the
Church of the East is highly similar to that of Chalcedon, many orthodox Christians (particularly in the West) consider this group to be the perpetuation of
Nestorianism; the modern Assyrian Church of the East has at times shunned this term, as it implies acceptance of the entire theology of Nestorius. Various forms of
Monophysitism taught that Christ only had one nature: that the divine had either dissolved (
Eutychianism), or that the divine joined with the human as one nature in the person of Christ (
Miaphysitism). A notable monophysite theologian was
Eutyches ().
Monophysitism was rejected as
heresy at the
Council of Chalcedon in 451, which affirmed that Jesus Christ had two natures (divine and human) joined in one person, in
hypostatic union (see
Chalcedonian creed). While Eutychianism was suppressed into oblivion by the Chalcedonians and Miaphysites, the Miaphysite groups who dissented from the Chalcedonian formula have persisted as the
Oriental Orthodox Church. As theologians continued to search for a compromise between the Chalcedonian definition and the
Monophysites, other Christologies developed that partially rejected the full humanity of Christ.
Monothelitism taught that in the one person of Jesus there were two natures, but only a divine will. Closely related to this is
Monoenergism, which held to the same doctrine as the Monothelites, but with different terminology. These positions were declared
heresy by the
Third Council of Constantinople (the Sixth
Ecumenical Council, 680–681).
Incarnation The Incarnation is the belief in
Christianity that the second person in the
Christian Godhead, also known as
God the Son or the
Logos (Word), "became flesh" when he was miraculously conceived in the womb of the
Virgin Mary. The word Incarnate derives from
Latin (in=in or into, caro, carnis=flesh) meaning "to make into flesh" or "to become flesh". The incarnation is a fundamental
theological teaching of
orthodox (Nicene) Christianity, based on its understanding of the
New Testament. The incarnation represents the belief that Jesus, who is the non-created second
hypostasis of the
triune God, took on a human body and nature and became
both man and God. In the
Bible its clearest teaching is in : "And the Word became flesh, and dwelt among us." , 1877 painting by
Carl Heinrich Bloch In the Incarnation, as traditionally defined, the divine nature of the Son was joined but not mixed with human nature in one divine Person,
Jesus Christ, who was both "truly God and truly man". The Incarnation is commemorated and celebrated each year at
Christmas, and also reference can be made to the Feast of the
Annunciation; "different aspects of the mystery of the Incarnation" are celebrated at Christmas and the Annunciation. This is central to the traditional faith held by most Christians. Alternative views on the subject (See
Ebionites and the
Gospel according to the Hebrews) have been proposed throughout the centuries (see below), but all were rejected by
mainstream Christian bodies. In recent decades, an alternative doctrine known as "
Oneness" has been espoused among various
Pentecostal groups (see below), but has been rejected by the remainder of
Christendom. ;Description and development of the traditional doctrine In the
early Christian era, there was considerable disagreement amongst Christians regarding the nature of Christ's Incarnation. While all Christians believed that Jesus was indeed the
Son of God, the exact nature of his Sonship was contested, together with the precise relationship of the "
Father", "Son" and "
Holy Ghost" referred to in the New Testament. Though Jesus was clearly the "Son", what exactly did this mean? Debate on this subject raged most especially during the first four centuries of Christianity, involving
Jewish Christians,
Gnostics, followers of the Presbyter
Arius of Alexandra, and adherents of
St. Athanasius the Great, among others. Eventually, the Christian Church accepted the teaching of St. Athanasius and his allies, that Christ was the incarnation of the eternal second person of the
Trinity, who was fully God and fully a man simultaneously. All divergent beliefs were defined as
heresies. This included
Docetism, which said that Jesus was a divine being that took on human appearance but not flesh;
Arianism, which held that Christ was a created being; and
Nestorianism, which maintained that the Son of God and the man, Jesus, shared the same body but retained
two separate natures. The
Oneness belief held by certain modern
Pentecostal churches is also seen as heretical by most mainstream Christian bodies. The most widely accepted the early Christian Church made definitions of the Incarnation and the nature of Jesus at the
First Council of Nicaea in 325, the
Council of Ephesus in 431, and the
Council of Chalcedon in 451. These councils declared that Jesus was both fully God: begotten from, but not created by the Father; and fully man: taking his flesh and human nature from the
Virgin Mary. These two natures, human and divine, were
hypostatically united into the one personhood of Jesus Christ. ;Fortuitous and Necessary Incarnation The link between the Incarnation and the
Atonement within systematic theological thought is complex. Within traditional models of the Atonement, such as
Substitution,
Satisfaction or
Christus Victor, Christ must be Divine in order for the Sacrifice of the Cross to be efficacious, for human sins to be "removed" or "conquered". In his work
The Trinity and the Kingdom of God,
Jurgen Moltmann differentiated between what he called a "fortuitous" and a "necessary" Incarnation. The latter gives a soteriological emphasis to the Incarnation: the Son of God became a man so that he could save us from our sins. The former, on the other hand, speaks of the Incarnation as a fulfilment of the
Love of God, of his desire to be present and living amidst humanity, to "walk in the garden" with us. Moltmann favours "fortuitous" incarnation primarily because he feels that to speak of an incarnation of "necessity" is to do an injustice to the
life of Christ. Moltmann's work, alongside other systematic theologians, opens up avenues of liberation
Christology.
Hypostatic union (12th century) In short, this doctrine states that two natures, one human and one divine, are united in the one person of Christ. The Council further taught that each of these natures, the human and the divine, was distinct and complete. This view is sometimes called
Dyophysite (meaning two natures) by those who rejected it. Hypostatic union (from the Greek for substance) is a technical term in Christian theology employed in mainstream
Christology to describe the union of two natures, humanity and divinity, in Jesus Christ. A brief definition of the doctrine of two natures can be given as: "Jesus Christ, who is identical with the Son, is one person and one hypostasis in two natures: a human and a divine." The
First Council of Ephesus recognised this doctrine and affirmed its importance, stating that the humanity and divinity of Christ are made one according to nature and hypostasis in the
Logos. The
First Council of Nicaea declared that the Father and the Son are of the same substance and are co-eternal. This belief was expressed in the Nicene Creed.
Apollinaris of Laodicea was the first to use the term hypostasis in trying to understand the
Incarnation. Apollinaris described the union of the divine and human in Christ as being of a single nature and having a single essence– a single hypostasis. The Nestorian
Theodore of Mopsuestia went in the other direction, arguing that in Christ there were two natures (
dyophysite) (human and divine) and two hypostases (in the sense of "essence" or "person") that co-existed. The
Chalcedonian Creed agreed with Theodore that there were two natures in the
Incarnation. However, the
Council of Chalcedon also insisted that hypostasis be used as it was in the Trinitarian definition: to indicate the person and not the nature as with Apollinarius. Thus, the Council declared that in Christ there are two natures; each retaining its own properties, and together united in one subsistence and in one single person. As the precise nature of this union is held to defy finite human comprehension, the hypostatic union is also referred to by the alternative term "mystical union". The
Oriental Orthodox Churches, having rejected the Chalcedonian Creed, were known as
Monophysites because they would only accept a definition that characterized the incarnate Son as having one nature. The
Chalcedonian "in two natures" formula was seen as derived from and akin to a
Nestorian Christology. Contrariwise, the Chalcedonians saw the Oriental Orthodox as tending towards
Eutychian Monophysitism. However, the Oriental Orthodox have in modern ecumenical dialogue specified that they have never believed in the doctrines of Eutyches, that they have always affirmed that Christ's humanity is consubstantial with our own, and they thus prefer the term "Miaphysite" to refer to themselves (a reference to Cyrillian Christology, which used the phrase "mia physis tou theou logou sesarkomene"). In recent times, leaders from the
Eastern Orthodox and
Oriental Orthodox Churches have signed joint statements in an attempt to work towards reunification.
Other Christological concerns ;The sinlessness of Christ Although Christian orthodoxy holds that Jesus was fully human, the
Epistle to the Hebrews, for example, states that Christ was 'holy and without evil' (7:26). The question concerning the sinlessness of Jesus Christ focuses on this seeming paradox. Does being fully human require that one participate in
the "fall" of Adam, or could Jesus exist in an "unfallen" status as
Adam and Eve did before the "fall", according to Genesis 2–3? ;Kinds of sinlessness Evangelical writer
Donald Macleod suggests that the sinless nature of Jesus Christ involves two elements. "First, Christ was free of actual sin." Studying the gospels there is no reference to Jesus praying for the forgiveness of sin, nor confessing sin. The assertion is that Jesus did not commit sin, nor could he be proven guilty of sin; he had no vices. In fact, he is quoted as asking, "Can any of you prove me guilty of sin?" in John 8:46. "Secondly, he was free from inherent sin ("
original sin" or "
ancestral sin")." He experienced all the frail weaknesses of humanity. Jesus was tempted through hunger and thirst, pain and the love of his friends. Thus, the human weaknesses could engender temptation. Nevertheless, MacLeod notes that "one crucial respect in which Christ was not like us is that he was not tempted by anything within himself." MacLeod places this struggle in the context of the incarnation, "...he has become a man and must accept not only the appearance but the reality." Barth speaks of the virgin birth as the divine sign "which accompanies and indicates the mystery of the incarnation of the Son." Donald MacLeod gives several Christological implications of a virgin birth: • Highlights salvation as a
supernatural act of God rather than an act of human initiative. • Avoids
adoptionism (which is virtually required if a normal birth). • Reinforces the sinlessness of Christ, especially as it relates to Christ being outside the sin of Adam (
original sin). ;Relationship of Persons The discussion of whether the three distinct persons in the Godhead of the Trinity were of greater, equal, or lesser by comparison was also, like many other areas of early Christology, a subject of debate. In
Athenagoras of Athens (–190) writings we find a very developed trinitarian doctrine. On the one end of the spectrum was
modalism, a doctrine stating that the three persons of the Trinity were equal to the point of erasing their differences and distinctions. On the other end of the spectrum were
tritheism as well as some radically
subordinationist views, the latter of which emphasized the primacy of the Father of Creation to the deity of Christ and Jesus's authority over the Holy Spirit. During the Council of Nicea, the modalist bishops of Rome and Alexandria aligned politically with Athanasius; whereas the bishops of Constantinople (Nicomedia), Antioch, and Jerusalem sided with the subordinationists as middle ground between Arius and Athanasius.
Approaches to Christology Theologians like
Jurgen Moltmann and Walter Kasper have characterized Christologies as anthropological or cosmological. These are also termed 'Christology from below' and 'Christology from above' respectively. An anthropological Christology starts with the human person of Jesus and works from his life and ministry toward what it means for him to be divine; whereas, a cosmological Christology works in the opposite direction. Starting from the eternal Logos, a cosmological Christology works toward his humanity. Theologians typically begin on one side or the other and their choice inevitably colors their resultant Christology. As a starting point, these options represent "diverse yet complementary" approaches; each poses its own difficulties. Both Christologies 'from above' and 'from below' must come to terms with the two natures of Christ: human and divine. Just as light can be perceived as a wave or as a particle, so Jesus must be thought in terms of both his divinity and humanity. You cannot talk about "either or" but must talk about "both and". ;Cosmological approaches Christologies from above start with the Logos, the second Person of the Trinity, establish his eternality, his agency in creation, and his economic Sonship. Jesus's unity with God is established by the Incarnation as the divine Logos assumes a human nature. This approach was common in the early church—e.g., St. Paul and St. John in the Gospels. The attribution of full humanity to Jesus is resolved by stating that the two natures mutually share their properties (a concept termed
communicatio idiomatum). ;Anthropological approaches Christologies from below start with the human being Jesus as the representative of the new humanity, not with the pre-existent Logos. Jesus lives an exemplary life, one to which we aspire in religious experience. This form of Christology lends itself to mysticism, and some of its roots go back to emergence of Christ mysticism in the 6th century East, but in the West it flourished between the 11th and 14th centuries. A recent theologian Wolfhart Pannenberg contends that the resurrected Jesus is the "eschatological fulfillment of human destiny to live in nearness to God." ;Political approaches The Christian faith is inherently political because allegiance to Jesus as risen Lord relativises all earthly rule and authority. Jesus is called "Lord" over 230 times in Paul's epistles alone, and is thus the principal confession of faith in the Pauline epistles. Further, N.T. Wright argues that this Pauline confession is the core of the gospel of salvation. The Achilles' heel of this approach is the loss of eschatological tension between this present age and the future divine rule that is yet to come. This can happen when the state co-opts Christ's authority as was often the case in imperial Christology. Modern political Christologies seek to overcome imperialist ideologies.
Works of Christ ;Resurrection of Jesus , 1875. The resurrection is perhaps the most controversial aspect of the life of Jesus Christ. Christianity hinges on this point of Christology, both as a response to a particular history and as a confessional response. Some Christians claim that because he was resurrected, the future of the world was forever altered. Most Christians believe that Jesus's resurrection brings reconciliation with God (II Corinthians 5:18), the destruction of death (I Corinthians 15:26), and forgiveness of sins for followers of Jesus Christ. After Jesus had died, and was buried, the
New Testament states that he appeared to others in bodily form. Some skeptics say his appearances were only perceived by his followers in mind or spirit. The gospels state that the disciples believed they witnessed Jesus's resurrected body and that led to the beginning of the faith. They had previously hid in fear of persecution after Jesus's death. After seeing Jesus they boldly proclaimed the message of Jesus Christ despite tremendous risk. They obeyed Jesus's mandate to be reconciled to God through repentance (Luke 24:47), baptism, and obedience (Matthew 28:19–20). ;Offices as Prophet, Priest, and King Jesus Christ, the Mediator of humankind, fulfills the
three offices of Prophet, Priest, and King.
Eusebius of the early church worked out this threefold classification, which during the Reformation played a substantial role in
scholastic Lutheran Christology and in
John Calvin's and
John Wesley's Christology.
Pneumatology: Holy Spirit Pneumatology is the study of the
Holy Spirit.
Pneuma (
πνεῦμα) is
Greek for "
breath", which metaphorically describes a non-material being or influence. In Christian theology pneumatology refers to the study of the
Holy Spirit. In
Christianity, the Holy Spirit (or Holy Ghost) is the Spirit of
God. Within mainstream (Trinitarian) Christian beliefs he is the third person of the
Trinity. As part of the
Godhead, the Holy Spirit is equal with
God the Father and with
God the Son. The Christian theology of the Holy Spirit was the last piece of Trinitarian theology to be fully developed. Within mainstream (Trinitarian) Christianity the Holy Spirit is one of the three
persons of the
Trinity who make up the single
substance of God. As such the Holy Spirit is personal, and as part of the
Godhead, he is fully God, co-equal and co-eternal with
God the Father and
Son of God. He is different from the Father and the Son in that he
proceeds from the Father (or
from the Father and the Son) as described in the
Nicene Creed. which proclaim
blasphemy against the Holy Spirit as
unforgivable. The English word comes from two Greek words: πνευμα (
pneuma, spirit) and λογος (
logos, teaching about). Pneumatology would normally include study of the person of the Holy Spirit, and the works of the Holy Spirit. This latter category would normally include Christian teachings on
new birth,
spiritual gifts (charismata),
Spirit-baptism,
sanctification, the
inspiration of
prophets, and the indwelling of the Holy Trinity (which in itself covers many different aspects). Different
Christian denominations have different theological approaches. Christians believe that the Holy Spirit leads people to faith in Jesus and gives them the ability to live a
Christian lifestyle. The Holy Spirit dwells inside every Christian, each one's body being his temple. Jesus described the Holy Spirit as
paracletus in
Latin, derived from
Greek. The word is variously translated as
Comforter, Counselor, Teacher, Advocate, guiding people in the way of the truth. The Holy Spirit's action in one's life is believed to produce positive results, known as the
Fruit of the Holy Spirit. The Holy Spirit enables Christians, who still experience the effects of sin, to do things they never could do on their own. These spiritual gifts are not innate abilities "unlocked" by the Holy Spirit, but entirely new abilities, such as the ability to cast out
demons or simply bold speech. Through the influence of the Holy Spirit, a person sees more clearly the world around him or her and can use his or her mind and body in ways that exceed his or her previous capacity. A list of gifts that may be bestowed include the
charismatic gifts of
prophecy,
tongues, healing, and knowledge. Christians holding a view known as
cessationism believe these gifts were given only in New Testament times. Christians almost universally agree that certain "
spiritual gifts" are still in effect today, including the gifts of ministry, teaching, giving, leadership, and mercy. The experience of the Holy Spirit is sometimes referred to as being
anointed. After his
resurrection, Christ told his disciples that they would be "
baptized with the Holy Spirit" and would receive power from this event, a promise that was fulfilled in the events recounted in the second chapter of Acts. On the first
Pentecost, Jesus's disciples were gathered in
Jerusalem when a mighty wind was heard and tongues of fire appeared over their heads. A multilingual crowd heard the disciples speaking, and each of them heard them speaking in his or her native
language. The Holy Spirit is believed to perform specific divine functions in the life of the Christian or the church. These include: •
Conviction of sin. The Holy Spirit acts to convince the unredeemed person both of the sinfulness of their actions, and of their moral standing as sinners before God. •
Bringing to conversion. The action of the Holy Spirit is seen as an essential part of the bringing of the person to the Christian faith. The new believer is "born again of the Spirit". •
Enabling the Christian life. The Holy Spirit is believed to dwell in the individual believers and enable them to live a righteous and faithful life. The Holy Spirit is also believed to be active especially in the life of
Jesus Christ, enabling him to fulfill his work on earth. Particular actions of the Holy Spirit include: •
Cause of his birth. According to the gospel accounts of the birth of Jesus, the "beginning of His incarnate existence", was due to the Holy Spirit. •
Anointing him at his baptism. The
Roman Catholic Church adds to this list
generosity,
modesty, and
chastity. ;Gifts of the Spirit Christians believe that the Holy Spirit gives 'gifts' to Christians. These gifts consist of specific abilities granted to the individual Christian. It is over the nature and occurrence of these gifts, particularly the supernatural gifts (sometimes called charismatic gifts), that the greatest disagreement between Christians with regard to the Holy Spirit exists. One view is that the supernatural gifts were a special dispensation for the apostolic ages, bestowed because of the unique conditions of the church at that time, and are extremely rarely bestowed in the present time. This is the view of some in the Catholic Church and many other mainstream Christian groups. The alternate view, espoused mainly by Pentecostal denominations and the charismatic movement, is that the absence of the supernatural gifts was due to the neglect of the Holy Spirit and his work by the church. Although some small groups, such as the
Montanists, practiced the supernatural gifts they were rare until the growth of the
Pentecostal movement in the late 19th century. Believers in the relevance of the supernatural gifts sometimes speak of a
Baptism of the Holy Spirit or
Filling of the Holy Spirit which the Christian needs to experience in order to receive those gifts. Many churches hold that the
Baptism of the Holy Spirit is identical with conversion, and that all Christians are by definition baptized in the Holy Spirit. ==Cosmology: Things created==