Hispanic America In the late 19th century Uruguayan
José Enrique Rodó and Cuban
José Martí were writers stressing the value of Spanish language and cultural heritage as part of the construction of an identity for the new Hispanic American independent nations.
Great Britain and Ireland The first Spanish book translated into English was the
Celestina, as an adaptation in verse published in London between 1525 and 1530 by
John Rastell. It includes only the first four acts and is based on the Italian version of Alfonso de Ordóñez; it is often referred to as an
Interlude, and its original title is
A New Comedy in English in Manner of an Interlude Right Elegant and Full of Craft of Rhetoric: Wherein is Shewed and Described as well the Beauty and Good Properties of Women, as Their Vices and Evil Conditions with a Moral Conclusion and Exhortation to Virtue.. The Scottish poet
William Drummond (1585–1649) translated
Garcilaso de la Vega and
Juan Boscán. The English knew the masterpieces of Castilian literature, from early translations of
Amadís de Gaula by
Garci Rodriguez de Montalvo and the
Cárcel de amor by
Diego de San Pedro. Sir
Philip Sidney had read
Los siete libros de la Diana by the Hispano-Portuguese
Jorge de Montemayor, whose poetry influenced him greatly. John Bourchier translated
Libro de Marco Aurelio by
Antonio de Guevara.
David Rowland translated
Lazarillo de Tormes in 1586, which may have inspired the first English
picaresque novel,
The Unfortunate Traveller (1594), by
Thomas Nashe. By the end of the 16th century, the
Celestina had been translated fully (in London, J. Wolf, 1591;
Adam Islip, 1596;
William Apsley, 1598; and others). Some of the translators of that time traveled or lived for some time in Spain, such as Lord Berners,
Bartholomew Yong,
Thomas Shelton,
Leonard Digges and
James Mabbe.
William Cecil (Lord Burghley; 1520–1598) owned the largest Spanish library in the United Kingdom. Elizabethan theater also felt the powerful influence of the
Spanish Golden Age.
John Fletcher, a frequent collaborator of
Shakespeare, borrowed from
Miguel de Cervantes's
Don Quixote for his
Cardenio, possibly written in collaboration with Shakespeare, who is thought to have read
Juan Luis Vives. Fletcher's frequent collaborator
Francis Beaumont also imitated
Don Quixote in the more well-known
The Knight of the Burning Pestle. Fletcher also borrowed from other works by Cervantes, including
Los trabajos de Persiles y Segismunda for his
The Custom of the Country and
La ilustre fregona for his beautiful young saleswoman. Cervantes also inspired
Thomas Middleton and
William Rowley, with his
La gitanilla (one of the
Novelas ejemplares) influencing their
The Spanish Gipsy (1623). The first translation of
Don Quixote into a foreign language was the English version by
Thomas Shelton (first part, 1612; second, 1620). And
Don Quixote was imitated in the satirical poem
Hudibras (1663–78), composed by
Samuel Butler. In addition, the works of some great Golden Age poets were translated into English by
Richard Fanshawe, who died in Madrid. As early as 1738, a luxurious London edition of
Don Quixote in Spanish was published, prepared by the
Sephardic Cervantist
Pedro Pineda, with an introduction by
Gregorio Mayans and ornate engravings. Also in the 18th century two new translations of
Don Quixote were published, one by the painter
Charles Jervas (1742) and one by
Tobias Smollett, a writer of
picaresque novels (1755). Smollet appears as an avid reader of Spanish narrative, and that influence is always present in his works. Meanwhile, the best work of the 17th-century writer
Charlotte Lennox is
The Female Quixote (1752), which was inspired by Cervantes. Cervantes also was the inspiration for
The Spiritual Quixote, by
Richard Graves. Thwe first critical and annotated edition of
Don Quixote was that of the English clergyman
John Bowle (1781). The novelists
Henry Fielding and
Lawrence Sterne also were familiar with the works of Cervantes. Among the British travellers in Spain in the 18th century who left written testimony of their travels are (chronologically)
John Durant Breval,
Thomas James,
Wyndham Beawes,
James Harris,
Richard Twiss,
Francis Carter,
William Dalrymple,
Philip Thicknesse,
Henry Swinburne,
John Talbot Dillon,
Alexander Jardine,
Richard Croker,
Richard Cumberland,
Joseph Townsend,
Arthur Young,
William Beckford, John Macdonald (
Memoirs of an Eighteenth-Century Footman),
Robert Southey and Neville Wyndham. Other English travel writers who straddled the 18th and 19th centuries include
John Hookham Frere,
Henry Richard Vassall-Fox, better known as Lord Holland (1773–1840), a great friend of
Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos and
Manuel José Quintana, and benefactor of
José María Blanco White. Lord Holland visited Spain on numerous occasions and wrote his impressions about those trips. He also collected books and manuscripts and wrote a biography of
Lope de Vega. His home was open to all Spaniards, but especially to the liberal émigrés who arrived in the London district of
Somers Town in the 19th century, fleeing the absolutist repression of
King Ferdinand VII and the religious and ideological dogmatism of the country. Many of them subsisted by translating or teaching their language to English people, most of whom were interested in conducting business with Spanish America, although others wished to learn about Spanish medieval literature, much in vogue among the Romantics. One of the émigrés,
Antonio Alcalá Galiano, taught Spanish literature as a professor at the University of London in 1828 and published his notes. The publisher
Rudolph Ackerman established a great business publishing
Catecismos (text books) on different matters in Spanish, many of them written by Spanish émigrés, for the new Spanish-American republics.
Matthew G. Lewis set some of his works in Spain. And the protagonist of
Jane Austen's
Abbey of Northanger is deranged by her excessive reading of
Gothic novels, much as was Don Quixote with his books of
chivalry. Sir
Walter Scott was an enthusiastic reader of Cervantes and tried his hand at translation. He dedicated his narrative poem
The Vision of Roderick (1811) to Spain and its history.
Thomas Rodd translated some
Spanish folk ballads.
Lord Byron also was greatly interested in Spain and was a reader of
Don Quixote. He translated the ballad
Ay de mi Alhama in part of his
Childe Harold and
Don Juan.
Richard Trench translated
Pedro Calderón de la Barca and was friends with some of the emigrated Spaniards, some of whom wrote in both English and Spanish, such as
José María Blanco White and
Telesforo de Trueba y Cossío, and many of whom (including Juan Calderón, who held a chair of Spanish at
King's College), spread knowledge of the Spanish language and its literature.
John Hookham Frere was a friend of the
Duke of Rivas when the latter was in Malta, and Hookham translated some medieval and classical poetry into English. The brothers
Jeremiah Holmes Wiffen and
Benjamin B. Wiffen were both scholars of Spanish culture. The
"Lake Poet" Robert Southey, translated
Amadís de Gaula and
Palmerín de Inglaterra into English, among others works. English novelists were strongly influenced by Cervantes. Especially so was
Charles Dickens, who created a quixotic pair in Mr. Pickwick and
Sam Weller of
Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club.
John Ormsby translated the
Cantar de Mio Cid and
Don Quixote.
Percy Bysshe Shelley left traces of his devotion to
Calderón de la Barca in his work. The polyglot
John Bowring traveled to Spain in 1819 and published the observations of his trip. Other accounts of travel in Spain include those of
Richard Ford, whose
Handbook for Travellers in Spain (1845) was republished in many editions, and
George Borrow, author of the travelogue
The Bible in Spain, which was translated into Castilian by
Manuel Azaña, the poet and translator
Edward Fitzgerald, and the literary historian
James Fitzmaurice-Kelly, who was mentor to a whole British generation of Spanish scholars such as
Edgar Allison Peers and
Alexander A. Parker. Other outstanding Hispanists include the following: •
Francis William Pierce, Irish student of the epic poetry of the Golden Age; •
John Brande Trend, a historian of Spanish music; •
Edward Meryon Wilson, who translated the
Soledades of
Luis de Góngora (1931); •
Norman David Shergold, student of the Spanish
auto sacramental; •
John E. Varey, who documented the evolution of the paratheatrical forms in the Golden Age; as well as
Geoffrey Ribbans;
William James Entwistle;
Peter Edward Russell;
Nigel Glendinning;
Brian Dutton;
Gerald Brenan;
John H. Elliott;
Raymond Carr;
Henry Kamen;
John H. R. Polt;
Hugh Thomas;
Colin Smith;
Edward C. Riley;
Keith Whinnom;
Paul Preston;
Alan Deyermond;
Ian Michael; and
Ian Gibson. The Association of Hispanists of Great Britain and Ireland (AHGBI) was founded in 1955 by a group of university professors at
St. Andrews, and since then it has held congresses annually. The AHGBI played a decisive role in the creation of the
Asociación Internacional de Hispanistas (AIH), whose first congress was held at
Oxford in 1962.
Germany, Austria and Switzerland Aside from the imitation of the
picaresque novel by
Hans Jakob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen, Hispanism bloomed in Germany around the enthusiasm that German Romantics had for
Miguel de Cervantes,
Calderón de la Barca, and
Gracián.
Friedrich Diez (1794–1876) can be considered the first German philologist to give prominence to Spanish, in his
Grammatik der romanischen Sprachen (1836–1843) and his
Etymologisches Wörterbuch der romanischen Sprachen (1854). His first Spanish-related work,
Altspanische Romanzen, was published in 1819. Important to the promotion of Hispanism in Germany was a group of Romantic writers that included
Ludwig Tieck, an orientalist and poet who translated
Don Quixote into German (1799–1801);
Friedrich Bouterwek, author of the unorthodox
Geschichte der Poesie und Beredsamkeit seit dem Ende des dreizehnten Jahrhunderts and translator of the Cervantes short farce
El juez de los divorcios; and
August Wilhelm Schlegel (1767–1845), who translated works of
Calderón de la Barca (
Spanisches Theater, 1803–1809) and Spanish classical poetry into German. The philologist and folklorist
Jakob Grimm published
Silva de romances viejos (Vienna, 1816) with a prologue in Spanish.
Juan Nicolás Böhl de Faber, German consul in Spain, was a devoted student of
Calderón de la Barca, of Spanish classical theater generally, and of traditional popular literature. The philologist
Wilhelm von Humboldt traveled through Spain taking notes and was interested especially in the Basque language, and the philosopher
Arthur Schopenhauer was an avid reader and translator of
Gracián. Count
Adolf Friedrich von Schack (1815–1894) made a trip to Spain in 1852 to study the remnants of the Moorish civilization and became a devoted scholar of things Spanish. Hispanists of German, Austrian, and Swiss origins include
Franz Grillparzer,
Wendelin Förster,
Karl Vollmöller,
Adolf Tobler,
Heinrich Morf,
Gustav Gröber,
Gottfried Baist, and
Wilhelm Meyer-Lübke. Among them are two emigrants to Chile,
Rodolfo Lenz (1863–1938), whose works include his
Diccionario etimolójico de las voces chilenas derivadas de lenguas indíjenas americanas (1904) and
Chilenische Studien (1891), as well as other works on grammar and the Spanish of the Americas; and
Friedrich Hanssen (1857–1919), author of
Spanische Grammatik auf historischer Grundlage (1910; revised ed. in Spanish,
Gramática histórica de la lengua castellana, 1913), as well as other works on
Old Spanish philology,
Aragonese dialectology, and the Spanish of the Americas. The
Handbuch der romanischen Philologie (1896) by
Wilhelm Meyer-Lübke was a classic in Spain, as were his
Grammatik der romanischen Sprachen (1890–1902),
Einführung in das Studium der romanischen Sprachwissenschaft (1901) (translated into Spanish), and
Romanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch (1935).
Johannes Fastenrath, through his translations and other works, spread the Spanish culture among his contemporaries; in addition, he created the
prize that bears his name in the
Spanish Royal Academy, to reward the best works in Spanish poetry, fiction, and essays. The Austrian Romance scholar
Ferdinand Wolf, a friend of
Agustín Durán, was particularly interested in the
romancero, in the lyric poetry of the medieval Spanish
cancioneros, and in other medieval folk poetry; he also studied Spanish authors who had resided in Vienna, such as
Cristóbal de Castillejo. The Swiss scholar
Heinrich Morf edited the medieval
Poema de José (Leipzig, 1883). The works of
Karl Vossler and
Ludwig Pfandl on linguistic idealism and literary stylistics were widely read in Spain.
Calderón studies in Germany were advanced by the editions of
Max Krenkel. Other important authors were
Emil Gessner, who wrote
Das Altleonesische (Old Leonese) (Berlin 1867);
Gottfried Baist, who produced an edition of
Don Juan Manuel's
Libro de la caza (1880), as well as the outline of a historical grammar of Spanish,
Die spanische Sprache, in the encyclopedia of Romance philology published by
Gustav Gröber in 1888;
Hugo Schuchardt, known for his study of Spanish
flamenco music,
Die cantes flamencos; and
Armin Gassner, who wrote
Das altspanische Verbum (the Old Spanish verb) (1897), as well as a work on Spanish syntax (1890) and several articles on Spanish pronouns between 1893 and 1895. And wrote
Zur Kritik der altgermanischen Elemente im Spanischen (Bonn 1887), the first work on the influences of the Germanic languages on Spanish. Authors who made more specialized contributions to Hispanic philology include the following: • Werner Beinhauer (colloquial Spanish, phraseology, idioms); •
Joseph Brüch (Germanic influences, historical phonetics); •
Emil Gamillscheg (Germanic influences on the languages of the Iberian Peninsula, toponymy, Basques, and Romans); •
Wilhelm Giese (etymology, dialectology and popular culture,
Guanche loanwords in Spanish, the pre-Roman substrate, Judeo-Spanish); •
Rudolf Grossmann (
loanwords in the
Spanish of the River Plate region, Spanish and Spanish-American literature, Latin American culture); •
Helmut Hatzfeld (
stylistics, language of
Don Quixote); • (linguistic situation of the Iberian Peninsula, typology of Spanish); • (Aragonese dialectology, formation of the Romance languages); •
Fritz Krüger (dialectology, ethnography); • (historical linguistics, etymology, formation of the Romance languages, dialectology, linguistic typology); • Joseph M. Piel (toponymy and anthroponymy of the Ibero-Romance languages); •
Gerhard Rohlfs (historical linguistics, etymology, toponymy, dialectology, language and culture); •
Hugo Schuchardt (Spanish etymologies, pre-Roman languages, dialectology,
creole languages, Basque studies); • Friedrich Schürr (historical phonetics, lexicology); •
Leo Spitzer (etymology, syntax, stylistics, and lexicology of Spanish); •
Günther Haensch and Arnald Steiger (Arabic influences on Spanish,
Mozarabic language); •
Karl Vossler (stylistics, characterization of the Spanish language, studies of Spanish literature and culture); • (author of a biography of
Juan Donoso Cortés and an
Unamuno scholar); •
Max Leopold Wagner (Spanish of the Americas, studies on Gypsy dialect and slang, dialectology); • (author of
Altspanisches Elementarbuch (manual of Old Spanish, 1907).
Fritz Krüger created the famous
Hamburg School (not to be confused with the
pop music genre of the 1980s, of the same name), which applied the principles of the
Wörter und Sachen movement, founded earlier by Swiss and German philologists such as
Hugo Schuchardt, Ruduolf Meringer, and
Wilhelm Meyer-Lübke, aptly combining dialectology and ethnography. Between 1926 and 1944 Krüger directed the journal
Volkstum und Kultur der Romane and its supplements (1930–1945). It totaled 37 volumes, in which many of his students published their works. Krüger wrote mainly on Hispanic dialectology, especially on that of western Spain (Extremadura and Leon) and the Pyrenees, and he traveled on foot to gather the materials for his monumental work
Die Hochpyrenäen, in which he meticulously described the landscape, flora, fauna, material culture, popular traditions and dialects of the Central Pyrenees. The versatile Romance scholar
Gerhard Rohlfs investigated the languages and the dialects of both sides of the Pyrenees and their elements in common, as well as pre-Roman substrate languages of the Iberian Peninsula and
Guanche loanwords. The works of
Karl Vossler, founder of the linguistic school of
idealism, include interpretations of Spanish literature and reflections on the Spanish culture. Vossler, along with
Helmut Hatzfeld and
Leo Spitzer, began a new school of stylistics based on aesthetics, which focused on the means of expression of various authors. The early twentieth century marked the founding of two German institutions dedicated to Hispanic Studies (including Catalan, Galician and the Portuguese), in Hamburg and Berlin respectively. The University of Hamburg's Iberoamerikanisches Forschungsinstitut (Ibero-American Research Institute) was, from its founding in 1919 until the 1960s, almost the only German university institution dedicated to Spanish and other languages of the Iberian Peninsula. The Institute published the journal
Volkstum und Kultur der Romanen (1926–1944), devoted specifically to works on dialectology and popular culture, following, in general, patterns of the
Wörter und Sachen school. Meanwhile, Berlin's Ibero-Amerikanisches Institut was founded in 1930. Today, the Berlin institute houses Europe's largest library dedicated to studies of Spain, Portugal, and Latin America, and to the languages of these countries (including Catalan, Galician, Portuguese, Basque, and the indigenous languages of the Americas). The Ibero-Amerikanisches Institut in Berlin is engaged in research in the fields of literature, linguistics, ethnology, history, and art history. Under the
Nazi regime (1933–1945), German philology went through a difficult time. Some Romanists, through their work, praised and propagated the Nazi ideology. Meanwhile, others lost their professorships or underwent anti-Jewish persecution (such as
Yakov Malkiel and
Leo Spitzer, both of whom emigrated), by falling into disfavor with the regime or actively opposing it (for example
Helmut Hatzfeld, who fled from Germany, and Werner Krauss (not to be confused with the
actor of the same name), who lost his academic position in 1935). Laboriously reconstructed after World War II, the Hispanic philology of the German-speaking countries contributed the works of
Carolina Michaëlis de Vasconcellos and
Ernst Robert Curtius. Also: •
Rudolph Grossmann produced a Spanish-German dictionary and an anthology of Spanish lyric poetry. •
Hans Juretschke contributed studies on Spanish Romanticism and on German culture in Spain. •
Werner Beinhauer wrote several books on colloquial Spanish. • Torsten Rox studied
Mariano José de Larra and the Spanish nineteenth-century media. •
Hans Magnus Enzensberger published a new translation of
Federico García Lorca. The Deutscher Hispanistenverband (
German Association of Hispanists) was established in 1977 and since then has held a congress biennially. Currently in Germany, Spanish often surpasses French in number of students. About forty university departments of Romance philology exist in Germany, and there are more than ten thousand students of Spanish. Today in Germany there are publishers specialized in Hispanic Studies, such as Edition Reichenberger, in
Kassel, which is devoted to the Golden Age, and Klaus Dieter Vervuert's Iberoamericana Vervuert Verlag, which has branches in Frankfurt and Madrid and facilitates collaboration among Hispanists. In Austria,
Franz Grillparzer was the first scholar of Spanish and a reader of the theater of the Golden Age. Anton Rothbauer also distinguished himself, as a translator of modern lyric poetry and scholar of the
Black Legend.
Rudolf Palgen and Alfred Wolfgang Wurzbach (for example with his study of
Lope de Vega) also contributed to Hispanism in Austria.
France and Belgium Hispanism in France dates back to the powerful influence of
Spanish Golden Age literature on authors such as
Pierre Corneille and
Paul Scarron. Spanish influence was also brought to France by Spanish Protestants who fled the
Inquisition, many of whom took up teaching of the Spanish language. These included
Juan de Luna, author of a sequel to
Lazarillo de Tormes. N. Charpentier's
Parfaicte méthode pour entendre, écrire et parler la langue espagnole (Paris: Lucas Breyel, 1597) was supplemented by the grammar of
César Oudin (also from 1597) that served as a model to those that were later written in French.
Michel de Montaigne read the chroniclers of the
Spanish Conquest and had as one of his models
Antonio de Guevara.
Molière,
Alain-René Lesage, and
Jean-Pierre Claris de Florian borrowed plots and characters from Spanish literature. French travelers to Spain in the 19th century who left written and artistic testimony include painters such as
Eugène Delacroix and
Henri Regnault; well-known authors such as
Alexandre Dumas,
Théophile Gautier,
George Sand,
Stendhal,
Hippolyte Taine and
Prosper Mérimée; and other writers, including
Jean-François de Bourgoing,
Jean Charles Davillier,
Louis Viardot,
Isidore Justin Séverin,
Charles Didier,
Alexandre de Laborde,
Antoine de Latour,
Joseph Bonaventure Laurens,
Édouard Magnien,
Pierre Louis de Crusy and
Antoine Frédéric Ozanam.
Victor Hugo was in Spain accompanying his father in 1811 and 1813. He was proud to call himself a "
grandee of Spain", and he knew the language well. In his works there are numerous allusions to
El Cid and the works of
Miguel de Cervantes.
Prosper Mérimée, even before his repeated trips to Spain, had shaped his intuitive vision of the country in his
Théatre de Clara Gazul (1825) and in
La Famille de Carvajal (1828). Mérimée made many trips between 1830 and 1846, making numerous friends, among them the
Duke of Rivas and
Antonio Alcalá Galiano. He wrote ''Lettres addressées d'Espagne au directeur de la Revue de Paris
, which are costumbrista'' sketches that feature the description of a bullfight. Mérimée's short novels ''
(1834) and Carmen'' (1845) are classic works on Spain.
Honoré de Balzac was a friend of
Francisco Martínez de la Rosa and dedicated his novel
El Verdugo (1829) to him. (And Martínez de la Rosa's play
Abén Humeya was produced in Paris in 1831.) The Spanish
romancero is represented in the French
Bibliothèque universelle des romans, which was published in 1774.
Auguste Creuzé de Lesser published
folk ballads about
El Cid in 1814, comparing them (as
Johann Gottfried Herder had done before him) with the Greek epic tradition, and these were reprinted in 1823 and 1836, providing much raw material to the French Romantic movement. The journalist and publisher
Abel Hugo, brother of
Victor Hugo, emphasized the literary value of the
romancero, translating and publishing a collection of
romances and a history of King Rodrigo in 1821, and ''Romances historiques traduits de l'espagnol
in 1822. He also composed a stage review, Les français en Espagne'' (1823), inspired by the time he spent with his brother at the Seminario de Nobles in Madrid during the reign of
Joseph Bonaparte.
Madame de Stäel contributed to the knowledge of Spanish Literature in France (as she did also for German literature), which helped introduce Romanticism to the country. To this end she translated volume IV of
Friedrich Bouterwek's
Geschichte der Poesie und Beredsamkeit seit dem Ende des dreizehnten Jahrhunderts in 1812 and gave it the title of
Histoire de la littérature espagnole. Spanish literature was also promoted to readers of French by the Swiss author
Simonde de Sismondi with his study ''De la littérature du midi de l'Europe'' (1813). Also important for French access to Spanish poetry was the two-volume
Espagne poétique (1826–27), an anthology of post-15th-century Castilian poetry translated by
Juan María Maury. In Paris, the publishing house Baudry published many works by Spanish Romantics and even maintained a collection of "best" Spanish authors, edited by
Eugenio de Ochoa. Images of Spain were offered by the travel books of
Madame d'Aulnoy and
Saint-Simon, as well as the poet
Théophile Gautier, who travelled in Spain in 1840 and published
Voyage en Espagne (1845) and
Espagne (1845). These works are so full of color and the sense of the picturesque that they even served as inspirations to Spanish writers themselves (poets such as
José Zorrilla and narrators such as those of the
Generation of '98), as well as to
Alexandre Dumas, who attended the production of Zorrilla's
Don Juan Tenorio in Madrid. Dumas wrote his somewhat negative views of his experience in his
Impressions de voyage (1847–1848). In his play
Don Juan de Marana, Dumas revived the legend of
Don Juan, changing the ending after having seen Zorrilla's version in the edition of 1864.
François-René de Chateaubriand traveled through Iberia in 1807 on his return trip from Jerusalem, and later took part in the
French intervention in Spain in 1823, which he describes in his ''Mémoires d'Outre-tombe
(1849–1850). It may have been at that time that he began to write Les aventures du dernier Abencerraje
(1826), which exalted Hispano-Arabic chivalry. Another work that was widely read was the Lettres d'un espagnol'' (1826), by
Louis Viardot, who visited Spain in 1823.
Stendhal included a chapter "De l'Espagne" in his essay ''De l'amour'' (1822). Later (1834) he visited the country.
George Sand spent the winter of 1837–1838 with
Chopin in
Majorca, installed in the
Valldemossa Charterhouse. Their impressions are captured in Sand's ''Un hiver au midi de l'Europe'' (1842) and in Chopin's
Memoirs. Spanish classical painting exerted a strong influence on
Manet, and more recently, painters such as
Picasso and
Dalí have influenced modern painting generally. Spanish music has influenced composers such as
Georges Bizet,
Emmanuel Chabrier,
Édouard Lalo,
Maurice Ravel, and
Claude Debussy. At present the most important centers for Hispanism in France are at the Universities of
Bordeaux and
Toulouse, and in Paris, with the Institut des Études Hispaniques, founded in 1912. Journals include
Bulletin Hispanique. Prominent Hispanists in Belgium include
Pierre Groult and
Lucien-Paul Thomas. Groult studied Castilian mysticism in relation to its Flemish counterpart.
A Comprehensive Spanish Grammar (1995)—an English translation of the original Dutch
Spaanse Spraakkunst (1979)—was written by Jacques de Bruyne, a professor at
Ghent University.
United States and Canada Hispanism in the United States has a long tradition and is highly developed. To a certain extent this is a result of the United States's own history, which is tied closely to the Spanish empire and its former colonies, especially
Mexico,
Puerto Rico, the
Philippines, and
Cuba. Historically, many Americans have romanticized the Spanish legacy and given a privileged position to the Castilian language and culture, while simultaneously downplaying or rejecting the Latin American and Caribbean dialects and cultures of the Spanish-speaking areas of U.S. influence. There are now more than thirty-five million Spanish-speakers in the United States, making Spanish the second most spoken language in the country and Latinos the largest national minority. Spanish is used actively in some of the most populous states, including
California,
Florida,
New Mexico, and
Texas, and in large cities such as
New York,
Los Angeles,
Miami,
San Antonio and
San Francisco. The
American Association of Teachers of Spanish was founded in 1917 and holds a biennial congress outside the United States;
Hispania is the association's official publication. (Since 1944, it is the
American Association of Teachers of Spanish and Portuguese.) The
North American Academy of the Spanish Language brings together Spanish speakers in North America. The first academic professorships of Spanish at United States universities were established at
Harvard (1819),
Virginia (1825), and
Yale (1826). The U.S. consul in
Valencia,
Obadiah Rich, imported numerous books and valuable manuscripts that became the Obadiah Rich Collection at the
New York Public Library, and numerous magazines, especially the
North American Review, published translations. Many travelers published their impressions on Spain, such as
Alexander Slidell Mackenzie (
A Year in Spain [1836] and
Spain Revisited [1836]). These were read by
Washington Irving,
Edgar Allan Poe, and other travelers like the Sephardic journalist
Mordecai M. Noah and the diplomat
Caleb Cushing and his wife. Poe studied Spanish at the University of Virginia and some of his stories have Spanish settings. He also wrote scholarly articles on
Spanish literature. The beginnings of Hispanism itself are found in the works of
Washington Irving, who met
Leandro Fernández de Moratín in
Bordeaux in 1825 and was in Spain in 1826 (when he frequented the social gatherings of another American,
Sarah Maria Theresa McKean (1780–1841), the marquise widow of
Casa Irujo), as well as in 1829. He went on to become ambassador between 1842 and 1846. Irving studied in Spanish libraries and met
Martín Fernández de Navarrete in
Madrid, using one of the latter's works as a source for his
A History of the Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus (1828), and made friends and corresponded with
Cecilia Böhl de Faber, from where a mutual influence was born. His Romantic interest in Arab topics shaped his
A Chronicle of the Conquest of Granada (1829) and
Alhambra (1832). McKean's social gatherings were also attended by the children of the Bostonian of Irish origin John Montgomery, who was the consul of the United States in
Alicante, and particularly by the Spanish-born writer
George Washington Montgomery.
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's translations of Spanish classics also form part of the history of North American Hispanism; he went through
Madrid in 1829 expressing his impressions in his letters, a diary and in
Outre-Mer (1833–1834). A good connoisseur of the classics, Longfellow translated
Jorge Manrique's couplets. In order to fulfill his duties as a Spanish professor, he composed his
Spanish Novels (1830), which are story adaptations of Irving and published several essays on Spanish literature and a drama, including
The Spanish Student (1842), where he imitates those of the
Spanish Golden Age. In his anthology
The Poets and Poetry of Europe (1845) he includes the works of many Spanish poets.
William Cullen Bryant translated
Morisco romances and composed the poems "The Spanish Revolution" (1808) and "Cervantes" (1878). He was linked in New York to Spaniards and, as director of the
Evening Post, included many articles on Iberian subjects in the magazine. He was in Spain in 1847, and narrated his impressions in
Letters of a traveller (1850–1857). In Madrid he met
Carolina Coronado, translating into English her poem "The Lost Bird" and novel
Jarilla, both of which were published in the
Evening Post. But the most important group of Spanish scholars was one from Boston. The work of
George Ticknor, a professor of Spanish at Harvard who wrote
History of Spanish Literature, and
William H. Prescott, who wrote historical works on the conquest of America, are without doubt contributions of the first order. Ticknor was a friend of
Pascual de Gayangos y Arce, whom he met in
London, and visited
Spain in 1818, describing his impressions in
Life, letters and journals (1876). In spite of significant difficulties with his vision, Prescott composed histories of the conquest of Mexico and Peru, as well as a history of the reign of the Catholic Monarchs. In the United States there are important societies that are dedicated to the study, conservation and spread of Spanish culture, of which the
Hispanic Society of America is the best known. There are also libraries specialized in Hispanic matter, including ones at Tulane University, New Orleans. Important journals include
Hispanic Review, ''
, Nueva Revista de Filología Hispánica
, Hispania
, Dieciocho
, Revista Hispánica Moderna and Cervantes''.
Russia The history of Hispanism in
Russia—before, during, and after the
Soviet period—is long and deep, and it even survived the rupture of relations between Russia and Spain caused by the
Spanish Civil War. This history started in the 18th century, and in the 19th century the influence of
Miguel de Cervantes on
realist novelists (such as
Dostoyevsky,
Turgenev, and
Tolstoy) was profound. Romantic travellers, such as
Sergei Sobolevski, accumulated great libraries of books in Spanish and helped Spanish writers who visited Russia, such as
Juan Valera. The Russian realist dramatist
Alexander Ostrovsky translated the theater of
Calderón and wrote texts on Spanish Golden Age theater.
Yevgeni Salias de Tournemir visited Spain and published
Apuntes de viaje por España (1874), shortly before
Emilio Castelar published his
La Rusia contemporánea (1881). The Russian Association of Hispanists, founded in 1994, is currently supported by the
Russian Academy of Sciences. The field of Spanish-American studies has undergone a great increase recently. A survey in 2003 revealed that there are at least four thousand students of Spanish in Russian universities. Twentieth-century Spanish scholars include
Sergei Goncharenko (mentor of a whole generation of Spanish scholars), Victor Andreyev, Vladimir Vasiliev, Natalia Miod, Svetlana Piskunova, and Vsevolod Bagno (
El Quijote vivido por los rusos). Recently, a Russian Hernandian Circle was founded, devoted to studying the work of
Miguel Hernández, who visited the USSR in September 1937.
Poland Records of visits to Spain by Poles begin in the Middle Ages, with pilgrimages to
Santiago de Compostela. According to one estimate, more than 100 Poles made the pilgrimage during that era. In the 16th century, the humanist
Jan Dantyszek (1485–1548), ambassador of King
Sigismund I the Old to
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, traveled to the Iberian Peninsula three times and remained there for nearly ten years, becoming friends with outstanding figures such as
Hernán Cortés and leaving letters of his travels. The bishop
Piotr Dunin-Wolski took 300 Spanish books to Poland, and these were added to the
Jagiellonian Library of Kraków under the name of
Bibliotheca Volsciana. Several professors from Spain worked in the Academy of Kraków (today known as the
Jagiellonian University), including the Sevillian Garsías Cuadras and the Aragonese jurist
Pedro Ruiz de Moros (1506–1571), known in Poland as Roizjusz, who mainly wrote in Latin and was adviser to the king. The
Society of Jesus was active in Poland, promoting not only Spanish ideas of theology, but also Spanish theater, which they considered a teaching tool. In the 16th century, the travelers
Stanisław Łaski,
Andrzej Tęczyński,
Jan Tarnowski,
Stanisław Radziwiłł, and Szymon Babiogórski visited Spain, among others. An anonymous traveler who arrived in Barcelona in August 1595 left an account of his impressions in a manuscript called
Diariusz z peregrynacji włoskiej, hiszpańskiej, portugalskiej (
Diary of the Italian, Spanish and Portuguese Pilgrimages). In the 17th century, the Polish nobleman
Jakub Sobieski made the
pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela and wrote an account of his journey. In the years 1674–1675, Canon
Andrzej Chryzostom Załuski, Jerzy Radziwiłł, and Stanisław Radziwiłł visited Spain, and all left written testimony of their travels. Modern Polish Hispanic Studies begin with the Romantic poet
Adam Mickiewicz. He was followed in the 19th century by
Joachim Lelewel, Wojciech Dzieduszycki,
Leonard Rettel, and Julian Adolf Swiecicki.
Karol Dembowski wrote, in French, a book on his travels in Spain and Portugal during
First Carlist War.
Felix Rozanski, Edward Porebowicz and
Zygmunt Czerny were enthusiastic translators who taught in Poland at that time. Maria Strzałkowa wrote the first outline of history of Spanish literature in Polish. Other important translators include Kazimierz Zawanowski, Zofia Szleyen, Kalina Wojciechowska, and Zofia Chądzyńska. The poet and Hispanist
Florian Śmieja taught Spanish and Spanish American literature in London, Ontario. In 1971 the first professorship of Hispanic Studies not subordinate to a department of Romance literature was created at the
University of Warsaw, and in the following year a degree program in Hispanic Studies was instituted there. Today it is called the Institute of Iberian and Latin American Studies. Those who have taught in it include Urszula Aszyk-Bangs, M.-Pierrette Malcuzynski (1948–2004), Robert Mansberger Amorós, Víctor Manuel Ferreras, and Carlos Marrodán Casas. In Kraków the first National Symposium of Spanish Scholars was held in 1985. The historians
Janusz Tazbir and Jan Kienewicz wrote on Spanish themes, as did the literary scholars Gabriela Makowiecka, Henryk Ziomek, Beata Baczynska,
Florian Śmieja, Piotr Sawicki, and Kazimierz Sabik. Grzegorz Bak studied the image of Spain in 19th-century Polish literature.
Brazil The integration of Brazil into
Mercosur in 1991 created a need for closer relations between Brazil and the Hispanic world, as well as better knowledge of the Spanish language within Brazil. For this reason, Brazil has promoted the inclusion of Spanish in the country's education system. A large core of Spanish scholars formed at the
University of São Paulo, including
Fidelino de Figueiredo, Luis Sánchez y Fernández, and José Lodeiro. The year 1991 also marks the creation of the
Anuario Brasileño de Estudios Hispánicos, whose
Suplemento: El hispanismo en Brasil traces the history of Hispanic Studies in the country. In 2000 the first Congresso Brasileiro de Hispanistas took place, and its proceedings were published under the title
Hispanismo 2000. At that meeting, the Associação Brasileira de Hispanistas was established. The organization's second congress took place in 2002, and since then it has been held every two years.
Portugal Compared to Brazil, Portugal has shown less interest in Hispanism; it was not until 2005 that a national association for it was founded. Portuguese activities in this field are mostly of a
comparatist nature and focus on Luso-Spanish topics, partly because of academic and administrative reasons. The journal
Península is one of the most important Hispanist journals in the country. Portuguese Hispanism appears somewhat limited, and to an extent there is a mutual distrust between the two cultures, motivated by a history of conflicts and rivalry. Nevertheless, Portuguese writers of the Renaissance—such as the dramatist
Gil Vicente,
Jorge de Montemayor,
Francisco Sá de Miranda, and the historian
Francisco Manuel de Mello—wrote in both Spanish and Portuguese.
Italy The cultural relationship between Spain and Italy developed early in the Middle Ages, especially centered in
Naples through the relation that it had with the
Crown of Aragon and Sicily, and intensified during the Spanish Pre-Renaissance and Renaissance through Castile.
Garcilaso de la Vega engaged members of the
Accademia Pontaniana and introduced the
Petrarchian metrical style and themes to Spanish lyric poetry. This close relation extended throughout the periods of
Mannerism and the
Baroque in the 16th and 17th centuries. In the 18th century the poet Giambattista Conti (1741–1820) was perhaps the foremost Spanish scholar, translator and anthologist of Europe. Dramatist, critic, and theater historiographer
Pietro Napoli Signorelli (1731–1815) defended Spanish literature against critics such as
Girolamo Tiraboschi and
Saverio Bettinelli, who accused it of "bad taste", "corruption", and "barbarism".
Giacomo Casanova and
Giuseppe Baretti traveled throughout Spain, leaving interesting descriptions of their experiences: Baretti was fluent in Spanish. The critic Guido Bellico was in the
Reales Estudios de San Isidro with the eminent Arabist Mariano Pizzi. Among other prominent Italian Hispanists were Leonardo Capitanacci, Ignazio Gajone, Placido Bordoni, Giacinto Ceruti, Francesco Pesaro, Giuseppe Olivieri, Giovanni Querini and Marco Zeno. In the 19th century, Italian Romanticism took great interest in the Spanish
romancero, with translations by
Giovanni Berchet in 1837 and Pietro Monti in 1855.
Edmondo de Amicis traveled throughout Spain and wrote a book of his impressions.
Antonio Restori (1859–1928), a professor at the Universities of Messina and of Genoa, published some works of Lope de Vega and dedicated his
Saggi di bibliografia teatrale spagnuola (1927) to the bibliography of the Spanish theater; he also wrote
Il Cid, studio storico-critico (1881) and
Le gesta del Cid (1890).
Bernardo Sanvisenti, a professor of Spanish language and literature at the University of Milan, wrote
Manuale di letteratura spagnuola (1907), as well as a study (1902) on the influence of
Boccaccio,
Dante and
Petrarch in Spanish literature. Italian Hispanism arose from three sources, already identifiable in the 19th century. The first of these was the Spanish hegemonic presence in the Italian peninsula, which sparked interest in the study of Spain and in the creation of works about Spain. Secondly, Italian Hispanism was encouraged by a
comparatist approach, and in fact the first Italian studies on literature in Spanish were of a comparative nature, such as
Benedetto Croce's
La Spagna nella vita italiana durante la Rinascenza (1907) and the works of
Arturo Farinelli and Bernardino Sanvisenti, which were dedicated to the relationships between Spain and Italy, Italy and Germany, and Spain and Germany. Thirdly, the development of Italian Hispanism was supported by Romance philology, especially through the works of
Mario Casella (author of
Cervantes: Il Chisciotte [1938]),
Ezio Levi,
Salvatore Battaglia, and
Giovanni Maria Bertini (translator of Spanish modern poetry, especially the poems of
Lorca).
Cesare de Lollis also made important contributions to Cervantes studies. The field of modern Hispanic Studies originated in 1945, with the trio of
Oreste Macrì (editor of works of
Antonio Machado and of Fray
Luis de León),
Guido Mancini, and
Franco Meregalli. Eventually Spanish-American studies emerged as an area of independent of the literature of Spain. Between 1960 and 1970 the first professorships of Spanish-American language and literature were created, pioneered by Giovanni Meo Zilio, who occupied the first chair of that sort created at the
University of Florence in 1968. He was followed by
Giuseppe Bellini (historian of Spanish-American literature, translator of
Pablo Neruda, and student of
Miguel Ángel Asturias);
Roberto Paoli (Peruvianist and translator of
César Vallejo); and
Dario Puccini (student of the lyric poetry of Sor
Juana Inés de la Cruz, as well as that of the 20th century). The Association of Italian Hispanists (AISPI) was created in May 1973 and has held numerous congresses almost annually since then. Italian Hispanists include
Silvio Pellegrini,
Pio Rajna,
Antonio Viscardi,
Luigi Sorrento,
Guido Tammi,
Francesco Vian,
Juana Granados de Bagnasco,
Gabriele Ranzato,
Lucio Ambruzzi,
Eugenio Mele, Manlio Castello,
Francesco Ugolini, Lorenzo Giussi, Elena Milazzo,
Luigi de Filippo,
Carmelo Samonà,
Giuseppe Carlo Rossi, the poets
Giuseppe Ungaretti (who translated
Góngora) and
Pier Paolo Pasolini,
Margherita Morreale,
Giovanni Maria Bertini,
Giuliano Bonfante,
Carlo Bo (who worked with the poetry of
Juan Ramón Jiménez),
Ermanno Caldera,
Rinaldo Froldi, and
Guido Mancini (author of a
Storia della letteratura spagnola.
Israel At the time of its founding in 1948, the modern state of Israel already included a substantial Spanish-speaking community. Their language,
Judeo-Spanish, was derived from
Old Spanish along a path of development that diverged from that of the Spanish of Spain and its empire, beginning in 1492, when the
Jews were
expelled from Spain. Between the 16th and 20th centuries many of them lived in the old
Ottoman Empire and North Africa. There are some 100,000 speakers of Judeo-Spanish in Israel today. At present there are several Israeli media outlets in (standard Castilian) Spanish, some of which have a long history. The newsweekly
Aurora, for example, was founded in the late 1960s, and today it also has an online edition. Israel has at least three radio stations that broadcast in Spanish. Modern Israeli Hispanists include
Samuel Miklos Stern (the discoverer of the Spanish
kharjas and a student of the
Spanish Inquisition), professor
Benzion Netanyahu, and Haim Beinart. Other Israeli scholars have studied the literature and history of Spain, frequently influenced by the theses of
Américo Castro.
Don Quixote has been translated into Hebrew twice, first by Natan Bistritzky and Nahman Bialik (Jerusalem, Sifriat Poalim, 1958), and later (Tel Aviv: Hakibutz Hameuchad, 1994) by Beatriz Skroisky-Landau and Luis Landau, the latter a professor in the Department of Hebrew Literature at
Ben-Gurion University of the Negev and author of
Cervantes and the Jews (Beer Sheva: Ben-Gurion University Press, 2002). The historian
Yosef Kaplan has written numerous works and has translated
Isaac Cardoso's
Las excelencias y calumnias de los hebreos into Hebrew. The Asociación de Hispanistas de Israel was created on 21 June 2007 at the Instituto Cervantes de Tel Aviv, consisting of over thirty professors, researchers and intellectuals linked to the languages, literatures, history and cultures of Spain, Portugal, Latin America and the Judeo-Spanish Sephardic world. Its first meeting was convened by professors
Ruth Fine (
Hebrew University of Jerusalem), who was appointed the first president of the association; Raanán Rein (
Tel Aviv University); Aviva Dorón (
University of Haifa); and Tamar Alexander (
Ben-Gurion University of the Negev).
Arab world Spain's links with the Arab world began in the Middle Ages with the
Moorish conquest of the Iberian Peninsula. Arabic-speaking
Moorish kingdoms were present in Spain until 1492, when the
Reconquista defeated the
Emirate of Granada. Many Moors remained in Spain until their final expulsion in 1609. The
Spanish Empire, at its height, included a number of Arabic-speaking enclaves in the
Maghreb, such as
Spanish Sahara and
Spanish Morocco. The Moroccan historian
Ahmed Mohammed al-Maqqari (c. 1591 – 1632) wrote about the Muslim dynasties in Spain. The Egyptian poet
Ahmed Shawqi (1869–1932) spent six years of exile in Andalusia. Perhaps the first "scientific" Arab Hispanist was the Lebanese writer
Shakib Arslan (1869–1946), who wrote a book about his trips to Spain in three volumes. The Egyptian writer
Taha Husayn (1889–1973) promoted the renewal of relations with Spain, among other European countries of the Mediterranean, and led the creation of an edition of the great 12th-century Andalusian literary encyclopedia
Al-Dakhira, of
Ibn Bassam. Other important figures were 'Abd al-'Aziz al-Ahwani, 'Abd Allah 'Inan, Husayn Mu'nis, Salih al-Astar, Mahmud Mekki, and Hamid Abu Ahmad. Linked to the
Egyptian Institute of Madrid are Ahmad Mukhtar al-'Abbadi (who specialized in the history of Moorish Granada), Ahmad Haykal, Salah Fadl, As'ad Sharif 'Umar, and Nagwa Gamal Mehrez. The Asociación de Hispanistas de Egipto was formed in 1968. The First Colloquium of Arab Hispanism took place in Madrid in 1975.
Netherlands In spite of
a bitter war between Spain and the United Provinces in the late 16th century, Hispanism has deep roots in the Netherlands. The influence of
Spanish Golden Age literature can be seen in the work of the Dutch poet and playwright
Gerbrand Bredero and in the translations of
Guilliam de Bay in the 17th century. Nineteenth-century
Romanticism aroused Dutch curiosity about the exoticism of things Spanish. The Arabist
Reinhart Dozy (1820–1883) made important contributions to the study of the Moorish domination in Spain, including ''Histoire des Musulmans d'Espagne
(1861) and the continuation Recherches sur l'Histoire et littérature de l'Espagne
, which was published in its definitive form in 1881. A few years later, the Dutch scholar Fonger de Haan (1859–1930) held the chair of Spanish literature at Boston University. Two of his publications, Pícaros y ganapanes
(1899) and An Outline of the History of the
Novela Picaresca in Spain'' (1903) still serve as starting points for research today. In 1918 he tried in vain to spark the interest of the State
University of Groningen in Hispanic Studies, but nevertheless donated his library of Hispanic Studies to it a few years later. Serious studies of literature gained new impetus thanks to the work of
Jan te Winkel of the
University of Amsterdam who, with his seven-volume
De Ontwikkelingsgang der Nederlandsche Letterkunde (1908–1921), drew attention to the influence that Spanish literature exerted on Dutch literature in the 17th century. Other researchers, such as
William Davids (1918),
Joseph Vles (1926) and
Simon Vosters (1955), continued in the same direction as te Winkel. Two Romanists who were of great importance to Dutch Hispanism were Salverda de Grave and Sneyders de Vogel.
Jean Jacques Salverda de Grave (1863–1947) became a professor of Romance philology at the
University of Groningen in 1907, and he was succeeded by
Kornelis Sneyders de Vogel (1876–1958) in 1921. In 1906, for the first time since 1659, a Spanish/Dutch dictionary was published, followed in 1912 by a Dutch/Spanish dictionary, both composed by
A. A. Fokker. Since then many such dictionaries have been published, including one by C. F. A. van Dam and H. C. Barrau and another by S. A. Vosters. Many Spanish grammars in Dutch also have been published, including a grammar by
Gerardus Johannes Geers (1924), one by Jonas Andries van Praag (1957) and one by Jos Hallebeek, Antoon van Bommel, and Kees van Esch (2004). Doctor W. J. van Baalen was an important popularizer of the history, customs, and wealth of Spanish America, producing ten books in those areas. Along with C. F. A. Van Dam, he founded the Nederlandsch Zuid-Amerikaansch Instituut in order to promote commercial and cultural contact between both worlds. The Groningen poet
Hendrik de Vries (1896–1989) travelled twelve times to Spain between 1924 and 1936 and—although his father, an eminent philologist and polyglot, always refused to study Spanish because of the
Eighty Years' War—the poet dedicated his book of poems
Iberia (1964) to Spain. In the Netherlands, the Institute of Hispanic Studies at the
University of Utrecht was founded in 1951 by
Cornelis Frans Adolf van Dam (who was a student of
Ramón Menéndez Pidal) and has since been an important center for Spanish scholars. The Mexican Training Center at the
University of Groningen was established in 1993. Johan Brouwer, who wrote his thesis on Spanish mysticism, produced twenty-two books on Spanish subjects, as well as numerous translations.
Jonas Andries van Prague, a professor at Groningen, studied Spanish Golden Age theater in the Netherlands and the
Generation of '98, as well as the
Sephardic refugee writers in the Netherlands.
Cees Nooteboom has written books about travel to Spain, including
Roads to Santiago.
Barber van de Pol produced a Dutch translation of
Don Quixote in 1994, and Hispanism continues to be promoted by Dutch writers such as Rik Zaal (
Alles over Spanje), Gerrit Jan Zwier, Arjen Duinker, Jean Pierre Rawie, Els Pelgrom (
The Acorn Eaters), Chris van der Heijden (
The Splendour of Spain from Cervantes to Velázquez),
"Albert Helman", Maarten Steenmeijer, and Jean Arnoldus Schalekamp (
This is Majorca: The Balearic Islands : Minorca, Ibiza, Formentera).
Scandinavia Denmark Miguel de Cervantes had an impact in Denmark, where his
Don Quixote was translated into
Danish (1776–1777) by
Charlotte Dorothea Biehl, who also translated his
Novelas ejemplares (1780–1781).
Hans Christian Andersen made a trip to Spain and kept a diary about his experiences. Other prominent Danish Hispanists include
Knud Togeby; Carl Bratli (
Spansk-dansk Ordbog [Spanish/Danish dictionary], 1947); Johann Ludwig Heiberg (1791–1860,
Calderón studies); Kristoffer Nyrop (1858–1931,
Spansk grammatik); and Valdemar Beadle (Middle Ages and the Spanish and Italian Baroque).
Sweden In
Sweden, prominent Hispanists include
Erik Staaf;
Edvard Lidforss (translator of
Don Quixote into Swedish);
Gunnar Tilander (publisher of medieval Spanish
fueros);
Alf Lombard; Karl Michaëlson;
Emanuel Walberg; Bertil Maler (who edited
Tratado de las enfermedades de las aves de caza);
Magnus Mörner;
Bengt Hasselrot; and
Nils Hedberg.
Inger Enkvist researched Latin American novels and
Juan Goytisolo. Mateo López Pastor, author of
Modern spansk litteratur (1960), taught and published in Sweden.
Norway Hispanism was founded in
Norway by professor
Magnus Gronvold, who translated
Don Quixote into Norwegian in collaboration with
Nils Kjær. Leif Sletsjoe (author of
Sancho Panza, hombre de bien) and Kurt E. Sparre (a
Calderón scholar) were both professors at the
University of Oslo. Currently there is a strong and renewed interest in Hispanism among Norwegian youth, and the 21st century has seen the publication of at least three Spanish grammars for Norwegians—one by Cathrine Grimseid (2005); another by Johan Falk, Luis Lerate, and Kerstin Sjölin (2008); and one by Ana Beatriz Chiquito (2008). There is an Association of Norwegian Hispanism, a National Association of Professors of Spanish, and several journals, including
La Corriente del Golfo (Revista Noruega de Estudios Latinoamericanos,
Tribune, and
Romansk forum.
Finland In
Finland, at the beginning of the 20th century there was an important group of Hispanists in
Helsinki, including
Oiva J. Tallgren (1878–1941; he adopted the surname Tuulio in 1933); his wife
Tyyni Tuulio (1892–1991); (1904–1981), who studied Arabisms in Old Spanish; and Sinikka Kallio-Visapää (translator of
Ortega y Gasset).
Romania In Romania, the initiator of Hispanism was
Ștefan Vârgolici, who translated a great part of the early 17th-century
Miguel de Cervantes novel
Don Quixote into Romanian and published—under the title
Studies on Spanish Literature (Jasi, 1868–1870)—works on
Calderón, Cervantes, and
Lope de Vega, which had appeared in the journal
Convorbiri literare (Literary Conversations).
Alexandru Popescu-Telega (1889–1970) wrote a book on
Unamuno (1924), a comparison between Romanian and Spanish
folklore (1927), a biography of Cervantes (1944), a translation from the
romancero (1947), a book on Hispanic Studies in Romania (1964), and an anthology in Romanian.
Ileana Georgescu,
George Călinescu (
Iscusitul hidalgo Don Quijote de la Mancha), and
Tudor Vianu (
Cervantes) have published books on Cervantes.
Asia and the Pacific There is an Asian Association of Spanish Scholars (Asociación Asiática de Hispanistas ), which was founded in 1985 and meets every three years.
Former East Indies Hispanism in Asia and the Pacific is mostly related to the literature and languages of the Spanish/
Novohispanic administration’s legacy in the Philippines, Mariana Islands, Guam and Palau, where Spanish has a history as a colonial language. In 1900, less than a million Filipinos spoke Spanish;
estimates of the number of Filipinos whose first language is Spanish today vary widely, ranging from 2,660 to 400,000. Spanish remains perceivable in some
creole languages, such as
Chabacano. In
Manila, the
Instituto Cervantes has given Spanish classes for years, and the
Philippine Academy of the Spanish Language is involved in the teaching and standard use of Spanish in the Philippines. But there is no institution or association that brings together and defends the interests of Hispanicity. The most important Spanish scholars—aside from the national hero, poet and novelist
José Rizal (who wrote in Spanish)—are Antonio M. Molina (not the composer
Antonio J. Molina), José María Castañer,
Edmundo Farolan,
Guillermo Gómez, Miguel Fernández Passion, Alfonso Felix, and Lourdes Castrillo de Brillantes. The weekly
Nueva Era, edited by
Guillermo Gómez Rivera, is the only newspaper in Spanish still published in the Philippines, although the quarterly journal
Revista Filipina, edited by Edmundo Farolán, also exists, in print and online.
Japan The first Japanese institution to offer Spanish language classes, in 1897, was the Language School of Tokyo, known today as the
Tokyo University of Foreign Studies. There,
Gonzalo Jiménez de la Espada mentored the first Japanese Hispanists, including Hirosada Nagata (1885–1973, now considered a "patriarch" of Hispanism in Japan) and Shizuo Kasai. Meanwhile, the
Osaka University of Foreign Studies established Hispanic Studies in its curriculum in 1921, but most university Hispanic Studies departments were founded in the 1970s and '80s. Translations of
Don Quixote into Japanese are at first incomplete and by way of an English version (e.g. one by Shujiro Watanabe in 1887, and others in 1893, 1901, 1902, and 1914). Japanese versions of
Don Quixote in its entirety—although still based on an English translation—were published in 1915 (by Hogetsu Shimamura and Noburu Katakami) and in 1927–28 (by Morita). In 1948, Hirosada Nagata published a nearly-complete direct (from the Spanish) Japanese translation. It fell to Nagata's student, Masatake Takahashi (1908–1984), to complete that translation (published in 1977). Meanwhile, an entire, direct Japanese translation of
Don Quixote was also produced (the two parts in 1958 and 1962) by Yu Aida (1903–1971). The Asociación Japonesa de Hispanistas was founded in Tokyo in 1955, consisting mostly of university professors. The association publishes the journal
Hispánica. The journal
Lingüística Hispánica is published by the Círculo de Lingüística Hispánica de Kansai. Japanese Hispanism was surveyed by Ryohei Uritani in the article "Historia del hispanismo en el Japón", which was published in the journal
Español actual: Revista de español vivo (48 [1987], 69–92).
Korea The relations between Spain and
Korea began with
Gregorio Céspedes in the 16th century, who was studied by Chul Park. Spanish education in Korea has continued for the past fifty years, and there is currently a strong demand for it. Since 2001, Spanish has been an optional language in secondary education. The Asociación Coreana de Hispanistas was founded in 1981 and holds two annual congresses, one in June and another in December. It also publishes the journal
Hispanic Studies. == Associations of Hispanists ==