Antiquity The earliest mention of Prayāga and the associated pilgrimage is found in
Rigveda Pariśiṣṭa (supplement to the
Rigveda, c. 1200–1000 BCE). It is also mentioned in the
Pali canons of
Buddhism, such as in section 1.7 of
Majjhima Nikaya (), wherein the Buddha states that bathing in
Payaga (Skt: Prayaga) cannot wash away cruel and evil deeds, rather the virtuous one should be pure in heart and fair in action. The
Mahabharata (–300 CE) mentions a bathing pilgrimage at Prayag as a means of
prāyaścitta (atonement, penance) for past mistakes and guilt. In
Tirthayatra Parva, before the great war, the epic states "the one who observes firm [ethical] vows, having bathed at Prayaga during Magha, O best of the Bharatas, becomes spotless and reaches heaven." In
Anushasana parva, after the war, the epic elaborates this bathing pilgrimage as "geographical tirtha" that must be combined with
manasa-tirtha (tirtha of the heart) whereby one lives by values such as truth, charity, self-control, patience and others. Prayāga is mentioned in the
Agni Purana and other
Puranas with various legends, including being one of the places where
Brahma attended a
yajna (homa), and the confluence of river Ganges, Yamuna and mythical Saraswati site as the king of pilgrimage sites (
Tirtha Raj). Other early accounts of the significance of Prayag to Hinduism is found in the various versions of the
Prayaga Mahatmya, dated to the late 1st-millennium CE. These
Purana-genre Sanskrit texts describe Prayag as a place "bustling with pilgrims, priests, vendors, beggars, guides" and local citizens busy along the confluence of the rivers (
sangam). Prayaga is also mentioned in the Hindu epic
Ramayana, a place with the legendary
Ashram of sage
Bharadwaj.
In Jainism Jain idol of
Rishabhadeva commemorating the place of his omniscience
Purimtal Jain Tirth, located in Prayagraj (formerly known as
Purimtal), is a site of religious and historical significance for
Jains. This ancient pilgrim site is revered as the spot where
Rishabhadeva, the first
Tirthankara, achieved
keval gyan as per Jain beliefs. As documented in
Vividha Tirtha Kalpa by Acharya Jinaprabhasuri,
Purimtal once featured numerous Jain temples. Rishabhadeva is said to have attained omniscience under the
Akshayavat tree. This tree, often referred to as the "indestructible" tree in legends, is a point of spiritual reverence in other religions as well. The site also holds importance in
Hindu and Buddhist traditions. Originally, sandalwood footprints of Rishabhadeva were placed beneath the tree, which were later replaced with stone replicas following theft.
Jain idol of Rishabhadeva at the base of the
Akshayavata tree Acharya Hemachandrasuri's Triṣaṣṭiśalākāpuruṣacaritra describes
Purimtal as a 'hub of Jain activity', where multiple
Tirthankaras, including
Mahavira, visited and meditated. Mahavira is said to have practised deep meditation in the
Shakatmukh Udyan nearby, and a divine
Samavasaran () was constructed here. Acharya Arnikaputra is also said to have attained omniscience and
moksha near the
Triveni Sangam, the confluence of the Ganges, Yamuna, and
Saraswati rivers. In the 15th century,
Akbar constructed a fort enclosing the
Akshayavat tree. During British rule, public access to the fort was restricted, and the shrine was relocated to the Patalpuri Śvetāmbara Jain Temple on the fort's outskirts. While the Patalpuri Śvetāmbara Jain Temple houses a tree worshiped as the
Akshayvat, many believe the original Akshayvat is in an underground temple within the fort. Maps from the
British Library confirm this, showing the original temple's location at the fort's center.
Purimtal is associated with numerous milestones in
Jain history, including: • Rishabhadeva's attainment of omniscience beneath the
Akshayvat tree. Inscription evidence from the famed Ashoka edicts containing
Allahabad Pillar – also referred to as the Prayaga Bull pillar – adds to the confusion about the antiquity of this city. Archaeological surveys since the 1950s has revealed the presence of human settlements near the
sangam since BCE. Other scholars, such as Krishnaswamy and Ghosh disagree. In a paper published in 1935, they state that the pillar was always at its current location based on the inscription dates on the pillar, lack of textual evidence for the move in records left by Muslim historians and the difficulty in moving the massive pillar. Further, like Cunningham, they noted that many smaller inscriptions were added on the pillar over time. Quite many of these inscriptions include a date between 1319 CE and 1575 CE, and most of these refer to the month Magha. According to Krishnaswamy and Ghosh, these dates are likely related to the
Magh Mela pilgrimage at Prayag, as recommended in the ancient Hindu texts. In papers published about 1979, John Irwin – a scholar of Indian Art History and Archaeology, concurred with Krishnaswamy and Ghosh that the Allahabad pillar was never moved and was always at the confluence of the rivers Ganges and Yamuna. Archaeological and geological surveys done since the 1950s, states Irwin, have revealed that the rivers – particularly Ganges – had a different course in distant past than now. The original path of river Ganges at the Prayaga confluence had settlements dating from the 8th century BCE onwards.
Gupta Empire Homeland In some recent academic studies, the
Guptas are traced to have originated from the Prayaga region, where they first established power. The
Vishnu Purana provides an intriguing reference: "Anu-Ganga Prayāgam Māgadha Guptās-cha bhokshyanti," which has been translated by
Majumdar as "The territory along the
Ganges (up to) Prayaga will be enjoyed by the people of
Magadha and the Guptas." This excerpt suggests that the Guptas were distinguished from the people of Magadha, yet both jointly ruled the region along the Ganges up to Prayaga. Historically, the
Gupta Empire emerged from the unification of the Gupta and
Licchavis states, which aligns with this Purana's reference. The text seems to imply that the Licchavis of Nepal were identified with the Magadhas, and their joint domain included Magadha and the territory stretching westward to Prayag. In this context, the capital of the Gupta empire likely started around Magadha and Prayag and expanded from there. The concentration of early Gupta inscriptions and gold coinages around Prayag (especially of
Samudragupta's famous prasasti) tends to suggest that this region was the residence of greatest power of the Guptas. They probably controlled
Sarnath in the east, and as their stronghold, they used Prayag. For the initial phase of the empire, the exact boundaries in the region above and the west is vague, but they most definitely controlled eastern
Uttar Pradesh. By the late third and early fourth centuries, this area had burgeoned into a dynasty aiming to build a great empire.
Imperial capital Various scholarships considers Prayaga as the initial Gupta capital and supports this arguments with The
Puranic references, and multiple early
Gupta era inscriptions alongside the discovery of numerous coin hoards scattered around the region, further suggesting that the Guptas strengthened their sovereignty over the area prior to further expansion. Kama MacLean – an Indologist who has published articles on the Kumbh Mela predominantly based on the colonial archives and English-language media, states based on emails from other scholars and a more recent interpretation of the 7th-century Xuanzang memoir, that Prayag was also an important site in 7th-century India of a Buddhist festival. She states that Xuanzang festivities at Prayag featured a Buddha statue and involved alms giving, consistent with Buddhist practices. According to Li Rongxi – a scholar credited with a recent and complete translation of a critical version of the
Dà Táng Xīyù Jì, Xuanzang mentions that the site of the alms-giving is a
deva temple, and the alms-giving practice is recommended by the "records at this temple". Rongxi adds that the population of Prayaga was predominantly heretics (non-Buddhists, Hindus), and affirms that Prayaga attracted festivities of
deva-worshipping heretics and also the orthodox Buddhists. The historic literature of Hinduism and Buddhism before the Mughal emperor
Akbar use the term Prayag, and never use the term Allahabad or its variants. Its history before the
Mughal Emperor Akbar is unclear. In contrast to the account of Xuanzang, the Muslim historians place the tree at the confluence of the rivers. The historian Dr. D. B. Dubey states that it appears that between this period, the sandy plain was washed away by the Ganges, to an extent that the temple and tree seen by the Chinese traveller too was washed away, with the river later changing its course to the east and the confluence shifting to the place where Akbar laid the foundations of his fort.
Henry Miers Elliot believed that a town existed before Allahabad was founded. He adds that after
Mahmud of Ghazni captured Asní near
Fatehpur, he couldn't have crossed into
Bundelkhand without visiting Allahabad had there been a city worth plundering. He further adds that its capture should have been heard when
Muhammad of Ghor captured Benares. However, Ghori's historians never noticed it.
Akbarnama mentions that the
Mughal emperor Akbar founded a great city in Allahabad.
'Abd al-Qadir Bada'uni and
Nizamuddin Ahmad mention that Akbar laid the foundations of an Imperial City there which he called
Ilahabas.
Mughal rule , built by Mughal Emperor
Akbar in 1575 on the banks of the
Yamuna River Abul Fazal in his
Ain-i-Akbari states, "For a long time his (Akbar's) desire was to found a great city in the town of Piyag (Allahabad) where the rivers Ganges and Jamuna join... On 13th November 1583 (1st
Azar 991 H.) he (Akbar) reached the wished spot and laid the foundations of the city and planned four forts." Abul Fazal adds, "Ilahabad anciently called Prayag was distinguished by His Imperial Majesty [Akbar] by the former name". The role of Akbar in founding the Ilahabad – later called Allahabad – fort and city is mentioned by
ʽAbd al-Qadir Badayuni as well. The next generation of Mughal rulers started calling it Illahabad, and finally, the British started calling it "Allahabad" for ease of pronunciation. ) at
Khusro Bagh Akbar was impressed by its strategic location for a fort. Later, he declared Ilahabas as a capital of one of the twelve divisions (
subahs). According to Richard Burn, the suffix "–bas" was deemed to "savouring too much of Hinduism" and therefore the name was changed to
Ilahabad by
Shah Jahan. According to Maclean, these variant spellings have a political basis, as "Ilaha–" means "the gods" for Hindus, while Allah is the term for God to Muslims. In May 1602, he had his name read in
Friday prayers and his name minted on coins in Allahabad. After reconciliation with Akbar, Salim returned to Allahabad, where he stayed before returning in 1604. After capturing Jaunpur in 1624,
Prince Khurram ordered the siege of Allahabad. The siege was however, lifted after
Parviz and
Mahabat Khan came to assist the garrison. During the Mughal war of succession, the commandant of the fort who had joined
Shah Shuja made an agreement with
Aurangzeb's officers and surrendered it to Khan Dauran on 12 January 1659.
Nawabs of Awadh The fort was coveted by the
East India Company for the same reasons Akbar built it. British troops were first stationed at Allahabad fort in 1765 as part of the
Treaty of Allahabad signed by Lord
Robert Clive, Mughal emperor
Shah Alam II, and
Awadh's Nawab Shuja-ud-Daula. The combined forces of Bengal's Nawab
Mir Qasim, Shuja and Shah Alam were defeated by the English at
Buxar in October 1764 and at
Kora in May 1765. Alam, who was abandoned by Shuja after the defeats, surrendered to the English and was lodged at the fort, as they captured Allahabad,
Benares and
Chunar in his name. The territories of Allahabad and Kora were given to the emperor after the treaty was signed in 1765. Shah Alam spent six years in the Allahabad fort and after the
takeover of
Delhi by the Marathas, left for his capital in 1771 under their protection. He was escorted by
Mahadaji Shinde and left Allahabad in May 1771 and in January 1772 reached Delhi. Upon realising the Maratha intent of territorial encroachment, however, Shah Alam ordered his general
Najaf Khan to drive them out.
Tukoji Rao Holkar and
Visaji Krushna Biniwale in return attacked Delhi and defeated his forces in 1772. The Marathas were granted an imperial
sanad for Kora and Allahabad. They turned their attention to Oudh to gain these two territories. Shuja was however, unwilling to give them up and made appeals to the English and the Marathas did not fare well at the Battle of Ramghat. In August and September 1773,
Warren Hastings met Shuja and concluded a treaty, under which Kora and Allahabad were ceded to the Nawab for a payment of 50 lakh rupees.
Saadat Ali Khan II, after being made the Nawab by
John Shore, entered into a treaty with the company and gave the fort to the British in 1798.
Lord Wellesley after threatening to annexe the entire Awadh, concluded a treaty with Saadat on abolishing the independent Awadhi army, imposing a larger subsidiary force and annexing
Rohilkhand,
Gorakhpur and the Doab in 1801.
British rule at a January 1940
Congress Working Committee meeting with
Vallabhbhai Patel and
Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit at Anand Bhavan in Allahabad Acquired in 1801, Allahabad, aside from its importance as a pilgrimage centre, was a stepping stone to the agrarian track upcountry and the
Grand Trunk Road. It also potentially offered sizeable revenues to the company. Initial
revenue settlements began in 1803. Allahabad was a participant in the 1857
Indian Mutiny, when
Maulvi Liaquat Ali unfurled the banner of revolt. During the rebellion, Allahabad, with a number of European troops, was the scene of a massacre. making the city an administrative centre. They truncated the Delhi region of the state, merging it with
Punjab and moving the capital of the
North-Western Provinces to Allahabad (where it remained for 20 years). That year he read
Queen Victoria's proclamation, transferring control of India from the
East India Company to the
British Crown (beginning the
British Raj), in
Minto Park. In 1877 the provinces of Agra and Awadh were merged to form the
United Provinces, with Allahabad its capital until 1920. and by the turn of the 20th century, Allahabad was a revolutionary centre. Nityanand Chatterji became a household name when he hurled a bomb at a European club. In
Alfred Park in 1931,
Chandrashekhar Azad died when surrounded by British police. The
Nehru family homes,
Anand Bhavan and
Swaraj Bhavan, were centres of Indian National Congress activity. During the years before independence, Allahabad was home to thousands of
satyagrahis led by
Purushottam Das Tandon,
Bishambhar Nath Pande,
Narayan Dutt Tiwari and others. The first seeds of the
Pakistani nation were sown in Allahabad: on 29 December 1930,
Allama Muhammad Iqbal's presidential address to the
All-India Muslim League proposed a separate
Muslim state for the Muslim-majority regions of India. == Geography ==