celebrating Stalin's birthday in 1949 Some historians view Stalinism as a reflection of the ideologies of
Leninism and
Marxism, but some argue that it is separate from the
socialist ideals it stemmed from. After a political struggle that culminated in the defeat of the
Bukharinists (the "Party's
Right Tendency"), Stalinism was free to shape policy without opposition, ushering in an era of harsh
totalitarianism that worked toward rapid
industrialization regardless of the human cost. From 1917 to 1924, though often appearing united, Stalin,
Vladimir Lenin, and
Leon Trotsky had discernible ideological differences. In his dispute with Trotsky, Stalin de-emphasized the role of workers in advanced
capitalist countries (e.g., he considered the
U.S. working class "bourgeoisified"
labor aristocracy).
Socialism in one country . Under Stalin, this idea became gradually downplayed in favour of Stalin's concept of
socialism in one country All other
October Revolution 1917
Bolshevik leaders regarded their revolution more or less as just the beginning, with Russia as the springboard on the road toward worldwide revolution. Stalin introduced the idea of
socialism in one country by the autumn of 1924, a theory standing in sharp contrast to Trotsky's
permanent revolution and all earlier socialistic theses. The revolution did not spread outside Russia as Lenin had assumed it soon would. The revolution had not succeeded even within other former territories of the
Russian Empire – such as
Poland,
Finland,
Lithuania,
Latvia, and
Estonia. On the contrary, these countries had returned to
capitalist bourgeois rule. Despite this, by the autumn of 1924, Stalin's notion of socialism in
Soviet Russia was initially considered next to
blasphemy by other
Politburo members, including
Zinoviev and
Kamenev to the intellectual left;
Rykov,
Bukharin, and
Tomsky to the pragmatic right; and the powerful Trotsky, who belonged to no side but his own. None would even consider Stalin's concept a potential addition to communist ideology. Stalin's socialism in one-country doctrine could not be imposed until he had come close to being the Soviet Union's
autocratic ruler around 1929. Bukharin and the
Right Opposition expressed their support for imposing Stalin's ideas, as Trotsky had been exiled, and Zinoviev and Kamenev had been expelled from the party. In a 1936 interview with journalist
Roy W. Howard, Stalin articulated his rejection of
world revolution and said, "We never had such plans and intentions" and "The export of revolution is nonsense".
Proletarian state Traditional communist thought holds that the state will gradually "
wither away" as the implementation of socialism reduces class distinction. But Stalin argued that the
proletarian state (as opposed to the
bourgeois state) must become stronger before it can wither away. In Stalin's view,
counter-revolutionary elements will attempt to derail the transition to
full communism, and the state must be powerful enough to defeat them. For this reason,
communist regimes influenced by Stalin are
totalitarian. Other leftists, such as
anarcho-communists, have criticized the
party-state of the Stalin-era Soviet Union, accusing it of being bureaucratic and calling it a
reformist social democracy rather than a form of revolutionary communism.
Sheng Shicai, a Chinese
warlord with Communist leanings, invited Soviet intervention and allowed Stalinist rule to extend to
Xinjiang province in the 1930s. In 1937, Sheng conducted a purge similar to the
Great Purge, imprisoning, torturing, and killing about 100,000 people, many of them
Uyghurs.
Ideological repression and censorship Under Stalin, repression was extended to academic scholarship, the natural sciences, and literary fields. In particular, Einstein's
theory of relativity was subject to public denunciation, many of his ideas were rejected on ideological grounds and condemned as "bourgeois idealism" in the Stalin era. A policy of ideological repression impacted various disciplinary fields such as
genetics,
cybernetics,
biology,
linguistics,
physics,
sociology,
psychology,
pedology,
mathematical logic,
economics and
statistics.
Pseudoscientific theories of
Trofim Lysenko were favoured over scientific genetics during the Stalin era. Over 3,000 biologists were imprisoned, fired, or executed for attempting to oppose Lysenkoism and genetic research was effectively destroyed until the death of Stalin in 1953. Due to the ideological influence of
Lysenkoism, crop yields in the USSR declined. Orthodoxy was enforced in the
cultural sphere. Prior to Stalin's rule, literary, religious and national representatives had some level of autonomy in the 1920s but these groups were later rigorously repressed during the Stalinist era.
Socialist realism was imposed in artistic production and other creative industries such as
music,
film and
sport were subject to extreme levels of political control. in which the history of the governing party was significantly altered and revised including the importance of the leading figures during the Bolshevik revolution. Retrospectively, Lenin's primary associates such as Zinoviev, Trotsky,
Radek and Bukharin were presented as "vacillating", "opportunists" and "foreign spies" whereas Stalin was depicted as the chief discipline during the revolution. However, in reality, Stalin was considered a relatively unknown figure with secondary importance at the time of the event. In his book,
The Stalin School of Falsification, Leon Trotsky argued that the Stalinist faction routinely distorted political events, forged a theoretical basis for irreconcilable concepts such as the notion of "Socialism in One Country" and misrepresented the views of opponents through an array of employed historians alongside economists to justify policy manoeuvering and safeguarding its own set of material interests. He cited a range of historical documents such as private letters, telegrams, party speeches, meeting
minutes, and suppressed texts such as
Lenin's Testament. Cinematic productions served to foster the cult of personality around Stalin with adherents to the party line receiving
Stalin prizes. However, film directors and their assistants were still liable to mass arrests during the Great Terror. Censorship of films contributed to a
mythologizing of history as seen with the films
First Cavalry Army (1941) and
Defence of Tsaritsyn (1942) in which Stalin was glorified as a central figure to the
October Revolution. Conversely, the roles of other Soviet figures such as Lenin and Trotsky were diminished or misrepresented.
Cult of personality poster featuring an enlarged Stalin with workers In the aftermath of the succession struggle, in which Stalin had defeated both
Left and
Right Opposition, a cult of Stalin had materialised. From 1929 until 1953, there was a proliferation of
architecture,
statues,
posters,
banners and
iconography featuring Stalin in which he was increasingly identified with the state and seen as an emblem of Marxism. In July 1930, a state decree instructed 200 artists to prepare propaganda posters for the Five Year Plans and collectivisation measures. Historian Anita Pisch drew specific focus to the various manifestations of the personality cult in which Stalin was associated with the "Father", "Saviour" and "Warrior" cultural archetypes with the latter imagery having gained ascendency during the
Great Patrotic War and
Cold War. with writers such as
Isaac Deutscher and Erik van Ree noting that Stalin had absorbed elements from the cult of Tsars, Orthodox Christianity and highlighting specific acts such as
Lenin's embalming. Yet, other scholars have drawn on primary accounts from Stalin's associates such as
Molotov which suggested he took a more critical and ambivalent attitude towards his cult of personality. The cult of personality served to legitimate Stalin's authority, and establish continuity with Lenin as his "disciple, student and mentee" in the view of his wider followers. His successor,
Nikita Khrushchev, would later denounce the cult of personality around Stalin as contradictory to Leninist principles and party discourse.
Class-based violence Stalin blamed the
kulaks for inciting
reactionary violence against the people during the implementation of
agricultural collectivization. In response, the state, under Stalin's leadership, initiated a violent campaign against them. This kind of campaign was later known as
classicide, though several international legislatures have passed resolutions declaring the campaign a genocide. Some historians dispute that these social-class actions constitute genocide.
Purges and executions As head of the
Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Stalin consolidated nearly absolute power in the 1930s with a Great Purge of the party that claimed to expel "opportunists" and "counter-revolutionary infiltrators". Those targeted by the purge were often expelled from the party; more severe measures ranged from banishment to the
Gulag labor camps to execution after trials held by
NKVD troikas. In the 1930s, Stalin became increasingly worried about Leningrad party head
Sergei Kirov's growing popularity. At the
1934 Party Congress, where the vote for the new Central Committee was held, Kirov received only three negative votes (the fewest of any candidate), while Stalin received over 100. After Kirov's assassination, which Stalin may have orchestrated, Stalin invented a detailed scheme to implicate opposition leaders in the murder, including Trotsky,
Lev Kamenev, and
Grigory Zinoviev. Thereafter, the investigations and trials expanded. Stalin passed a new law on "terrorist organizations and terrorist acts" that were to be investigated for no more than ten days, with no prosecution, defense attorneys, or appeals, followed by a sentence to be imposed "quickly." Stalin's Politburo also issued directives on quotas for mass arrests and executions. Under Stalin, the
death penalty was extended to adolescents as young as 12 years old in 1935. After that, several trials, known as the
Moscow Trials, were held, but the procedures were replicated throughout the country.
Article 58 of the legal code, which listed prohibited
anti-Soviet activities as a counter-revolutionary crime, was applied most broadly. Many alleged anti-Soviet pretexts were used to brand individuals as "enemies of the people", starting the cycle of public persecution, often proceeding to interrogation, torture, and deportation, if not death. The Russian word
troika thereby gained a new meaning: a quick, simplified trial by a committee of three subordinated to the NKVD troika—with sentencing carried out within 24 hours. Stalin's hand-picked
executioner Vasili Blokhin was entrusted with carrying out some of the high-profile executions in this period. Many military leaders were convicted of treason, and a large-scale purge of
Red Army officers followed. The repression of many formerly high-ranking revolutionaries and party members led Trotsky to claim that a "river of blood" separated Stalin's regime from Lenin's. In August 1940, Trotsky was assassinated in Mexico, where he had lived in exile since January 1937. This eliminated the last of Stalin's opponents among the former Party leadership.
Mass operations of the NKVD also targeted "national contingents" (foreign ethnicities) such as
Poles,
ethnic Germans, and
Koreans. A total of 350,000 (144,000 of them Poles) were arrested and 247,157 (110,000 Poles) were executed. Many Americans who had emigrated to the Soviet Union during the worst of the
Great Depression were executed, while others were sent to prison camps or gulags. Concurrent with the purges, efforts were made to rewrite the history in Soviet textbooks and other propaganda materials. Notable people executed by
NKVD were removed from the texts and photographs as though they had never existed. In light of revelations from Soviet archives, historians now estimate that nearly 700,000 people (353,074 in 1937 and 328,612 in 1938) were executed in the course of the terror, the great mass of them ordinary Soviet citizens: workers, peasants, homemakers, teachers, priests, musicians, soldiers, pensioners, ballerinas, and beggars. Scholars estimate the total death toll for the Great Purge (1936–1938) including fatalities attributed to imprisonment to be roughly 700,000-1.2 million. Many of the executed were interred in
mass graves, with some significant killing and burial sites being
Bykivnia,
Kurapaty, and
Butovo. Some Western experts believe the evidence released from the Soviet archives is understated, incomplete or unreliable. Conversely, historian
Stephen G. Wheatcroft, who spent much of his career researching the archives, contends that, before the collapse of the Soviet Union and the opening of the archives for historical research, "our understanding of the scale and the nature of Soviet repression has been extremely poor" and that some specialists who wish to maintain earlier high estimates of the Stalinist death toll are "finding it difficult to adapt to the new circumstances when the archives are open and when there are plenty of irrefutable data" and instead "hang on to their old
Sovietological methods with round-about calculations based on odd statements from emigres and other informants who are supposed to have superior knowledge." Stalin personally signed 357
proscription lists in 1937 and 1938 that condemned 40,000 people to execution, about 90% of whom are confirmed to have been shot. While reviewing one such list, he reportedly muttered to no one in particular: "Who's going to remember all this riff-raff in ten or twenty years? No one. Who remembers the names now of the
boyars
Ivan the Terrible got rid of? No one." In addition, Stalin dispatched a contingent of NKVD operatives to
Mongolia, established a Mongolian version of the NKVD
troika, and unleashed a
bloody purge in which tens of thousands were executed as "Japanese spies", as Mongolian ruler
Khorloogiin Choibalsan closely followed Stalin's lead. Under Stalinist influence in the
Mongolian People's Republic, an estimated 17,000 monks were killed, official figures show. Stalinist forces also oversaw purges of anti-Stalinist elements among the Spanish Republican insurgents, including the
Trotskyist allied
POUM faction and
anarchist groups, during the
Spanish Civil War. During the 1930s and 1940s, the Soviet leadership sent NKVD squads into other countries to murder defectors and opponents of the Soviet regime. Victims of such plots included Trotsky,
Yevhen Konovalets,
Ignace Poretsky, Rudolf Klement,
Alexander Kutepov,
Evgeny Miller, and the Workers' Party of Marxist Unification (
POUM) leadership in Catalonia (e.g.,
Andréu Nin Pérez).
Joseph Berger-Barzilai, co-founder of the
Communist Party of Palestine, spent twenty five years in Stalin's prisons and concentrations camps after the purges in 1937.
The Great Terror The Great Terror (September 1936 – December 1938) is the term used by Western scholars to describe the peak of Stalinist political repression, during which Nikolai Yezhov headed the
NKVD and oversaw mass arrests and executions on an unprecedented scale. Hundreds of thousands of party officials, military officers, intellectuals, and ordinary citizens were sentenced in show trials and either executed or sent to
Gulag camps. The NKVD operated under centrally planned quotas that set numbers of people to be executed or imprisoned in each republic. As an example, in the
Kyrgyz SSR – then a small republic of just 1.5 million people – the directive for the first quarter of 1938 ordered 35 executions, 1,250 sentences of 25 years’ imprisonment, and 3,740 ten-year sentences. Local NKVD officials cynically referred to this as the “harvest of the crop.” Failure to fulfil these quotas could result in the arrest or even execution of the NKVD personnel themselves. The removal of several thousand able-bodied people within such a short period dealt a severe blow to the republic’s economy, yet quotas continued to be issued in subsequent quarters. Oral history accounts further describe the dramatic arrests of Kyrgyz elites, public trials staged as mass spectacles, and the devastating effects on families of those branded “enemies of the people.”
Deportations Shortly before, during, and immediately after
World War II, Stalin conducted a series of
deportations that profoundly affected the ethnic map of the Soviet Union.
Separatism, resistance to Soviet rule, and collaboration with the
invading Germans were the official reasons for the deportations. Individual circumstances of those spending time in
German-occupied territories were not examined. After the brief
Nazi occupation of the Caucasus, the entire population of five of the small highland peoples and the
Crimean Tatars—more than a million people in total—were deported without notice or any opportunity to take their possessions. As a result of Stalin's lack of trust in the loyalty of particular ethnicities, groups such as the
Soviet Koreans,
Volga Germans, Crimean Tatars,
Chechens, and many Poles, were forcibly moved out of strategic areas and relocated to places in the central Soviet Union, especially
Kazakhstan. By some estimates, hundreds of thousands of deportees may have died en route. It is estimated that between 1941 and 1949, nearly 3.3 million people were deported to
Siberia and the Central Asian republics. By some estimates, up to 43% of the resettled population died of diseases and malnutrition. According to official Soviet estimates, more than 14 million people passed through the gulags from 1929 to 1953, with a further 7 to 8 million deported and exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union (including entire nationalities in several cases). The emergent scholarly consensus is that from 1930 to 1953, around 1.5 to 1.7 million perished in the gulag system. In February 1956,
Nikita Khrushchev condemned the deportations as a violation of Leninism and reversed most of them, although it was not until 1991 that the Tatars,
Meskhetians, and Volga Germans were allowed to return
en masse to their homelands.
Economic policy during the
Soviet famine of 1932–1933 At the start of the 1930s, Stalin launched a wave of radical economic policies that completely overhauled the industrial and agricultural face of the Soviet Union. This became known as the
Great Turn as Russia turned away from the
mixed-economic type
New Economic Policy (NEP) and adopted a
planned economy. Lenin implemented the NEP to ensure the survival of the
socialist state following seven years of war (
World War I, 1914–1917, and the subsequent
Civil War, 1917–1921) and rebuilt Soviet production to its 1913 levels. But Russia still lagged far behind the West, and Stalin and the majority of the Communist Party felt the NEP not only to be compromising communist ideals but also not delivering satisfactory economic performance or creating the envisaged socialist society. According to historian
Sheila Fitzpatrick, the scholarly consensus was that Stalin appropriated the position of the
Left Opposition on such matters as
industrialisation and
collectivisation. Trotsky maintained that the disproportions and imbalances which became characteristic of Stalinist planning in the 1930s such as the underdeveloped
consumer base along with the priority focus on
heavy industry were due to a number of avoidable problems. He argued that the industrial drive had been enacted under more severe circumstances, several years later and in a less rational manner than originally conceived by the Left Opposition. Officially designed to accelerate development toward
communism, the need for
industrialization in the Soviet Union was emphasized because the Soviet Union had previously fallen behind economically compared to Western countries and also because socialist society needed industry to face the challenges posed by internal and external enemies of communism. Rapid industrialization was accompanied by mass collectivization of agriculture and rapid
urbanization, which converted many small villages into
industrial cities. To accelerate industrialization's development, Stalin imported materials, ideas, expertise, and workers from western Europe and the United States, pragmatically setting up
joint-venture contracts with major American
private enterprises such as the
Ford Motor Company, which, under state supervision, assisted in developing the basis of the industry of the
Soviet economy from the late 1920s to the 1930s. After the American private enterprises had completed their tasks, Soviet
state enterprises took over.
Fredric Jameson has said that "Stalinism was…a success and fulfilled its historic mission, socially as well as economically" given that it "modernized the Soviet Union, transforming a peasant society into an industrial state with a literate population and a remarkable scientific superstructure."
Robert Conquest disputes that conclusion, writing, "Russia had already been fourth to fifth among industrial economies before World War I", and that Russian industrial advances could have been achieved without collectivization, famine, or terror. According to Conquest, the industrial successes were far less than claimed, and the Soviet-style industrialization was "an anti-innovative dead-end."
Stephen Kotkin said those who argue collectivization was necessary are "dead wrong", writing that it "only seemed necessary within the straitjacket of Communist ideology and its repudiation of capitalism. And economically, collectivization failed to deliver." Kotkin further claimed that it decreased harvests instead of increasing them, as peasants tended to resist heavy taxes by producing fewer goods, caring only about their own subsistence. According to several Western historians, Stalinist agricultural policies were a key factor in the
Soviet famine of 1930–1933; some scholars believe that
Holodomor, which started near the end of 1932, was when the famine turned into an instrument of genocide; the Ukrainian government now recognizes it as such. Some scholars dispute the intentionality of the famine. Abortion was made illegal again in 1936 after controversial debate among citizens, and women's issues were largely ignored. == Relationship to Leninism ==