Meditation The practice of
meditation ( in Chinese and Dhyana in Buddhism| in Sanskrit), especially sitting meditation (, ; in Japanese) is a central part of Zen Buddhism.
Meditation in Chinese Buddhism The practice of
Buddhist meditation originated in India and first entered
China through the translations of
An Shigao (), and
Kumārajīva (334–413 CE). Both of these figures translated various
Dhyāna sutras. These were influential meditation texts which were mostly based on the meditation teachings of the
Kashmiri Sarvāstivāda school (). Among the most influential early Chinese meditation texts are the
Anban Shouyi Jing (, a sutra on
ānāpānasmṛti), the
Zuochan Sanmei Jing (, a sutra on sitting -) and the
Damoduoluo Chan Jing (, sutra). These early Chinese meditation works continued to exert influence on Zen practice well into the modern era. For example, the 18th-century Rinzai Zen master
Tōrei Enji wrote a commentary on the
Damoduoluo Chan Jing and used the
Zuochan Sanmei Jing as a source in the writing of this commentary. Tōrei Enji believed that the
Damoduoluo Chan Jing had been authored by
Bodhidharma. While
dhyāna in a strict sense refers to the classic four
dhyānas, in
Chinese Buddhism,
Chan may refer to
various kinds of meditation techniques and their preparatory practices, which are necessary to practice
dhyāna. The five main types of meditation in the
Dhyāna sutras are
ānāpānasmṛti (mindfulness of breathing);
paṭikūlamanasikāra meditation (mindfulness of the impurities of the body);
maitrī (loving-kindness) meditation; the contemplation on the twelve links of
pratītyasamutpāda; and
contemplation on the Buddha. According to the modern Chan master
Sheng-yen, these practices are termed the "five methods for stilling or pacifying the mind" and serve to focus and purify the mind, and support the development of the stages of
dhyana. Chan Buddhists may also use other classic Buddhist practices like the
four foundations of mindfulness and the Three Gates of Liberation (
śūnyatā or emptiness, signlessness or
animitta, and
wishlessness or apraṇihita). Early Chan texts also teach forms of meditation that are unique to
Mahāyāna Buddhism. For example, the
Treatise on the Essentials of Cultivating the Mind, which depicts the teachings of the 7th-century
East Mountain Teaching, teaches a visualization of a sun disk, similar to that taught in the
Contemplation Sutra. According to
Charles Luk, there was no single fixed method in early Chan (Zen). All the various Buddhist meditation methods were simply
skillful means that could lead a meditator to the Buddha-mind within.
Zen's sudden approach Modern scholars like Robert Sharf argue that early Chan, while having unique teachings and myths, also drew on classic Buddhist meditation methods, which is why it is hard to find many uniquely "Chan" meditation instructions in some of the earliest sources. However, Sharf also notes there was a unique kind of Chan meditation taught in some early sources, which also tends to deprecate the traditional Buddhist meditations. This uniquely Zen approach goes by various names like "maintaining mind" (
shouxin ), "maintaining unity" (
shouyi ), "discerning the mind" (
guanxin ), "viewing the mind" (
kanxin ), and "pacifying the mind" (
anxin ). A traditional phrase that describes this practice states that "Chan points directly to the human mind, to enable people to see their true nature and become Buddhas." According to McRae the "first explicit statement of the sudden and direct approach that was to become the hallmark of Ch'an religious practice" is associated with the
East Mountain School. It is a method named "maintaining the one without wavering" (,
shǒu yī bù yí),
the one being the true nature of mind or
Suchness, which is equated with Buddha-nature. Sharf writes that in this practice, one turns the attention from the objects of experience to "the nature of conscious awareness itself", the innately pure
Buddha-nature, which was compared to a clear mirror or to the sun (which is always shining but may be covered by clouds). This type of meditation is based on classic Mahāyāna ideas, which are not uniquely "Chan", but according to McRae, it differs from traditional practice in that "no preparatory requirements, no moral prerequisites or preliminary exercises are given," and is "without steps or gradations. One concentrates, understands, and is enlightened, all in one undifferentiated practice." Zen sources also use the term "
tracing back the radiance" or "turning one's light around" (Ch.
fǎn zhào, ) to describe seeing the inherent radiant source of the mind itself, the "numinous awareness",
luminosity, or Buddha-nature. The
Platform Sutra mentions this term and connects it with seeing one's "original face". The
Record of Linji states that all that is needed to obtain the Dharma is to "turn your own light in upon yourselves and never seek elsewhere". The Japanese Zen master
Dōgen describes it as follows: "You should stop the intellectual practice of pursuing words and learn the 'stepping back' of 'turning the light around and shining back' (Jp: ekō henshō); mind and body will naturally 'drop off,' and the 'original face' will appear." Similarly, the Korean Seon master Yŏndam Yuil states: "to use one's own mind to trace the radiance back to the numinous awareness of one's own mind...It is like seeing the radiance of the sun's rays and following it back until you see the orb of the sun itself." Sharf also notes that the early notion of contemplating a pure Buddha "Mind" was tempered and balanced by other Zen sources with terms like "
no-mind" (wuxin), and "no-mindfulness" (wunian), to avoid any metaphysical
reification of mind, and any clinging to mind or language. This kind of negative
Madhyamaka style dialectic is found in early Zen sources like the
Treatise on No Mind (
Wuxin lun ) of the
Oxhead School and the
Platform Sutra. These sources tend to emphasize
emptiness, negation, and absence (
wusuo ) as the main theme of contemplation. These two contemplative themes (the Buddha mind and no-mind, positive and negative rhetoric) continued to shape the development of Zen theory and practice throughout its history. Later Chinese Chan Buddhists developed their own meditation ("chan") manuals, which taught their unique method of direct and sudden contemplation. The earliest of these is the widely imitated and influential
Zuochan Yí (c. turn of the 12th century), which recommends a simple contemplative practice that is said to lead to the discovery of
inherent wisdom already present in the mind. This work also shows the influence of the earlier meditation manuals composed by
Tiantai patriarch
Zhiyi. However, other Zen sources de-emphasize traditional practices like sitting meditation, and instead focus on effortlessness and on ordinary daily activities. One example of this is found in the
Record of Linji which states: "Followers of the Way, as to Buddhadharma, no effort is necessary. You have only to be ordinary, with nothing to do—defecating, urinating, wearing clothes, eating food, and lying down when tired." Having no concerns or nothing-to-do (
wushi ) also appears in other Zen sources as well. For example, Chan master
Huangbo states that nothing compares with non-seeking, describing the Zen adept as follows: "the person of the Way is the one who has nothing to do [wu-shih], who has no mind at all and no doctrine to preach. Having nothing to do, such a person lives at ease." John McRae notes that a major development in early Ch'an was the rejection of traditional meditation techniques in favor of a uniquely Zen direct approach. Early Chan sources like the
Long Scroll (dubbed the
Bodhidharma Anthology by Jeffrey Broughton), the
Platform Sutra and the works of
Shenhui question such things as mindfulness and concentration, and instead state that insight can be attained directly and suddenly. For example, Record I of the
Long Scroll states: "The man of sharp abilities hears of the path without producing a covetous mind. He does not even produce right mindfulness and right reflection," and the iconoclastic
Master Yüan states in Record III of the same text, "If mind is not produced, what need is there for cross-legged sitting dhyana?" Similarly, the
Platform Sutra criticizes the practice of sitting samādhi: "One is enlightened to the Way through the mind. How could it depend on sitting?", while Shenhui's four pronouncements criticize the "freezing", "stopping", "activating", and "concentrating" of the mind. Zen sources that focus on the sudden teaching can sometimes be quite radical in their rejection of the importance of traditional Buddhist ideas and practices. The
Record of the Dharma-Jewel Through the Ages (
Lidai Fabao Ji), for example, states, "better that one should destroy
śīla [ethics], and not destroy true seeing. Śīla [causes] rebirth in Heaven, adding more [karmic] bonds, while true seeing attains nirvāṇa." Similarly the
Bloodstream Sermon states that it doesn't matter whether one is a butcher or not, if one sees one's true nature, then one will not be affected by
karma. The
Bloodstream Sermon also rejects the worship of Buddhas and bodhisattvas, stating that "Those who hold onto appearances are devils. They fall from the Path. Why worship illusions born of the mind? Those who worship don't know, and those who know don't worship." Similarly, in the
Lidai Fabao Ji,
Wuzhu states that "No-thought is none other than seeing the Buddha" and rejects the practice of worship and recitation. Most famously, the
Record of Linji has the master state that "if you meet a Buddha, kill the Buddha" (as well as patriarchs, arhats, parents, and kinfolk), further claiming that through this "you will gain emancipation, will not be entangled with things."
Common contemporary meditation forms Mindfulness of breathing practicing zazen, his hands make the "cosmic mudra" (Jp: hokkai jōin ), which is common in Japanese Soto Zen During sitting meditation (,
Ch. zuochan, Jp. zazen,
Ko. jwaseon), practitioners usually assume a sitting position such as the
lotus position,
half-lotus,
Burmese, or
seiza. Their hands are often placed in a specific gesture or
mudrā. Often, a square or round cushion placed on a padded mat is used to sit on; in some other cases, a chair may be used. To regulate the mind, Zen students are often directed towards
counting breaths. Either both exhalations and inhalations are counted, or only one of them. The count can be up to ten, and then this process is repeated until the mind is calmed. Zen teachers like
Omori Sogen teach a series of long and deep exhalations and inhalations as a way to prepare for regular breath meditation. Attention is often placed on the energy center (
dantian) below the navel. Zen teachers often promote
diaphragmatic breathing, stating that the breath must come from the lower abdomen (known as
hara or tanden in Japanese), and that this part of the body should expand forward slightly as one breathes. Over time, the breathing should become smoother, deeper, and slower. When the counting becomes an encumbrance, the practice of simply following the natural rhythm of breathing with concentrated attention is recommended. While some teachers such as
Dainin Katagiri Roshi taught watching the breath, and
Shunryū Suzuki taught counting the breath, others such as
Kōshō Uchiyama and
Shohaku Okumura taught neither counting nor watching the breath.
Silent illumination and Shikantaza meditating in the
lotus position,
Hong Kong, 1953 A common form of sitting meditation is called "Silent illumination" (Ch.
mòzhào , Jp
. mokushō). This practice was traditionally promoted by the
Caodong school of
Chinese Chan and is associated with
Hongzhi Zhengjue (1091–1157), who wrote various works on the practice. This method derives from the Indian Buddhist practice of the union (
Skt. yuganaddha) of
śamatha and
vipaśyanā. Hongzhi's practice of silent illumination does not depend on concentration on particular objects, "such as visual images, sounds, breathing, concepts, stories, or deities." Instead, it is a
non-dual "objectless" meditation, involving "withdrawal from exclusive focus on a particular sensory or mental object." This practice allows the meditator to be aware of "all phenomena as a unified totality," without any
conceptualizing,
grasping,
goal seeking, or
subject-object duality. According to
Leighton, this method "rests on the faith, verified in experience, that the field of vast brightness is ours from the outset." This "vast luminous Buddha field" is our immanent "inalienable endowment of wisdom" which cannot be cultivated or enhanced. Instead, one just has to recognize this radiant clarity without any interference. A similar practice is taught in the major schools of
Japanese Zen, but is especially emphasized by
Sōtō, where it is more widely known as
shikantaza (Ch.
zhǐguǎn dǎzuò, "just sitting"). For instance, the modern Sōtō Zen teacher
Shohaku Okumura says: "We don’t set our mind on any particular object, visualization, mantra, or even our breath itself. When we just sit, our mind is nowhere and everywhere." This method is discussed in the works of the Japanese Sōtō Zen thinker
Dōgen, especially in his
Shōbōgenzō and his
Fukanzazengi. For Dōgen, shikantaza is characterized by
hishiryō ("non-thinking", "without thinking", "beyond thinking"), which according to Kasulis is "a state of
no-mind in which one is simply aware of things as they are, beyond thinking and not-thinking". While the Japanese and the Chinese forms of these simple methods are similar, they are considered distinct approaches.
Huatou and Kōan Contemplation " () by
Torei Enji. It figures in the famous ''Zhaozhou's dog''
kōan During the
Song dynasty, ''gōng'àn (
Jp. kōan)'' literature became popular. Literally meaning "public case", they were stories or dialogues describing teachings and interactions between
Zen masters and their students. Kōans are meant to illustrate Zen's non-conceptual insight (
prajña). During the Song, a new meditation method was developed by Linji school figures such as
Dahui (1089–1163) called
kanhua chan ("observing the phrase" meditation), which referred to contemplation on a single word or phrase (called the
huatou, "critical phrase") of a ''gōng'àn''. Dahui famously criticised Caodong's "silent illumination." While the two methods of Caodong and Linji are sometimes seen as competing with each other, Schlütter writes that Dahui himself "did not completely condemn quiet-sitting; in fact, he seems to have recommended it, at least to his monastic disciples." In
Chinese Chan and
Korean Seon, the practice of "observing the
huatou" (
hwadu in Korean) is widely practiced. It was taught by Seon masters like
Chinul (1158–1210) and
Seongcheol (1912–1993), and modern Chinese masters like
Sheng Yen and
Xuyun. In the Japanese
Rinzai school,
kōan introspection developed its own formalized style, with a standardized curriculum of
kōans that must be studied, meditated on, and "passed" in sequence. Monks are instructed to "become one" with their koan by repeating the koan's key phrase constantly. They are also advised not to attempt to answer it intellectually, since the goal of the practice is a non-conceptual insight into non-duality. The Zen student's mastery of a given kōan is presented to the teacher in a private interview (referred to in Japanese as
dokusan,
daisan, or
sanzen). The process includes standardized answers, "checking questions" (
sassho ), and common sets of "capping phrase" (
jakugo) for poetry, all of which must be memorized by students. While there are standardized answers to a kōan, practitioners are also expected to demonstrate their spiritual understanding through their responses. The teacher may approve or disapprove of the answer based on the student's behavior and guide the student in the right direction. According to Hori, the traditional Japanese Rinzai koan curriculum can take 15 years to complete for a full-time monk. The interaction with a teacher is often presented as central in Zen, but also makes Zen practice vulnerable to misunderstanding and exploitation. Kōan-inquiry may be practiced during
zazen (sitting meditation)
, kinhin (walking meditation), and throughout all the activities of daily life. The goal of the practice is often termed
kensho (seeing one's true nature), and is to be followed by further practice to attain a natural, effortless, down-to-earth state of being, the "ultimate liberation", "knowing without any kind of defilement". This style of kōan practice is particularly emphasized in modern
Rinzai, but it also occurs in other schools or branches of Zen depending on the teaching line. In the Caodong and Sōtō traditions, koans were studied and commented on; for example,
Hongzhi published a collection of koans, and Dogen discussed koans extensively. However, they were not traditionally used in sitting meditation. Some Zen masters have also critiqued the practice of using koans for meditation. According to Haskel,
Bankei called kōans "old wastepaper" and saw the kōan method as hopelessly contrived. Similarly, the Song era master
Foyan Qingyuan (1067–1120) was critical of the use of koans (public cases) and similar stories, arguing that they did not exist during the time of
Bodhidharma. He said, "In other places they like to have people look at model case stories, but here we have the model case story of what is presently coming into being; you should look at it, but no one can make you see all the way through such an immense affair."
Nianfo Chan Nianfo (Jp.
nembutsu, from Skt.
buddhānusmṛti "recollection of the Buddha") refers to the recitation of the Buddha's name, in most cases the Buddha
Amitabha. In Chinese Chan, the
Pure Land practice of
nianfo based on the phrase
Nāmó Āmítuófó (Homage to Amitabha) is a widely practiced form of Zen meditation which came to be known as "Nianfo Chan" (). Nianfo was practiced and taught by early Chan masters, like
Daoxin (580-651), who taught that one should "bind the mind to one Buddha and exclusively invoke his name". The practice is also taught in
Shenxiu's Guanxin lun (). The recitation of a Buddha's name was also practiced in the
Soto school at different times throughout its history. During the
Meiji period, for example, both Shaka nembutsu (reciting the name of Shakyamuni Buddha:
namu Shakamuni Butsu) and Amida nembutsu were promoted by Soto school priests as easy practices for laypersons. Nianfo Chan is also widely practiced in
Vietnamese Thien.
Bodhisattva virtues and vows Since Zen is a form of
Mahayana Buddhism, it is grounded on the schema of the
bodhisattva path, which is based on the practice of the "transcendent virtues" or "perfections" (
Skt.
pāramitā, Ch.
bōluómì, Jp.
baramitsu) as well as the taking of the
bodhisattva vows. The most widely used list of six virtues is:
generosity,
moral training (incl.
five precepts),
patient endurance,
energy or effort,
meditation (
dhyana),
wisdom. An important source for these teachings is the
Avatamsaka sutra, which also outlines the grounds (
bhumis) or levels of the bodhisattva path. The
pāramitās are mentioned in early Chan works such as Bodhidharma's
Two entrances and four practices and are seen as an important part of gradual cultivation (
jianxiu) by later Chan figures like
Zongmi. An important element of this practice is the formal and ceremonial taking of
refuge in the three jewels,
bodhisattva vows, and
precepts. Various sets of precepts are taken in Zen, including the
five precepts,
"ten essential precepts", and the
sixteen bodhisattva precepts. This is commonly done in an
initiation ritual (
Ch.
shòu jiè ,
Jp.
Jukai,
Ko.
sugye, "receiving the precepts"
), which is also undertaken by
lay followers and marks a layperson as a formal Buddhist. The
Chinese Buddhist practice of fasting (
zhai), especially during the
uposatha days (Ch.
zhairi, "days of fasting"), can also be an element of Chan training. Chan masters may go on extended absolute fasts, as exemplified by
master Hsuan Hua's 35-day fast, which he undertook during the
Cuban Missile Crisis for the generation of merit.
Monasticism Zen developed in a
Buddhist monastic context and throughout its history, most Zen masters have been Buddhist monastics (
bhiksus) ordained in the Buddhist monastic code (
Vinaya) living in
Buddhist monasteries. East Asian Buddhist monasticism differs in various respects from traditional Buddhist monasticism, however, emphasizing
self-sufficiency. For example, Zen monks do not live by begging; they store and cook their own food in the monastery and may even farm and grow their own. Zen Monastics in Japan are particularly exceptional in the Buddhist tradition because the monks and nuns can marry after receiving their ordination. This is because they follow the practice of ordaining under the
bodhisattva vows instead of the traditional monastic Vinaya.
Zen monasteries (, pinyin: qiélán, Jp: garan, Skt.
saṃghārāma) will often rely on Zen monastic codes like the
Rules of Purity in the Chan Monastery and Dogen's
Pure Standards for the Zen Community (
Eihei Shingi) which regulate life and behavior in the monastery. Zen monasteries often have a specific building or hall for meditation, the
zendō (, Chinese: Chantáng), as well as a "Buddha hall" (, Ch:, Jp:
butsuden) used for ritual purposes which houses the "
main object of veneration" (, Ch: běnzūn, Jp: honzon), usually a Buddha image. Life in a Zen monastery is often guided by a daily schedule which includes periods of work, group meditation, rituals, and
formal meals. A widely practiced ritual in
Chan Buddhism is the tantric
Yujia Yankou rite, aimed at facilitating the spiritual nourishment of all
sentient beings.
Funerals are also an important ritual and are a common point of contact between Zen monastics and the laity. Statistics published by the Sōtō school state that 80 percent of Sōtō laypeople visit their temple only for funerals and other death-related matters. Seventeen percent visit for spiritual reasons, and 3 percent visit a Zen priest at a time of personal trouble or crisis. Another important type of ritual practiced in Zen is various
repentance or confession rituals (, Ch.
Chànhǔi, Jp.
Zange) that were widely practiced in all forms of Chinese Mahayana Buddhism. Some popular examples of such a ritual in Chan Buddhism is the
Dabei Chan, composed by the
Tiantai Patriarch
Siming Zhili, and the
Jewelled Repentance of the Emperor of Liang, composed by the Chan master Baozhi.
Dogen also wrote a treatise on repentance, which is included in the modern compilation known as the
Shushogi. Other rituals could include rites to
local deities (
kami in Japan) and ceremonies on Buddhist holidays such as
Buddha's Birthday. Another popular form of ritual in Japanese Zen is
Mizuko kuyō (Water child) ceremonies, which are performed for those who have had a
miscarriage,
stillbirth, or
abortion. These ceremonies are also performed in American Zen Buddhism.
Esoteric practices Depending on the tradition,
esoteric methods such as
mantra and
dhāraṇī may also be used for different purposes, including meditation practice, protection from evil, invoking great compassion, invoking the power of certain bodhisattvas, and are chanted during ceremonies and rituals. In the
Kwan Um school of Zen for example, a mantra of
Guanyin ("
Kwanseum Bosal") may be used during sitting meditation. The
Heart Sutra Mantra is also another mantra that is used in Zen during various rituals. Another example is the
Mantra of Light, which is common in both the Chinese
Chan tradition (where it is mostly used during the
Shuilu Fahui ceremony) as well as the Japanese
Soto Zen and (where its usage derives from the
Shingon sect). monk taking on the role of a tantric
vajrācārya during a
Yujia Yankou ritual In
Chinese Chan, the usage of esoteric mantras goes back to the
Tang dynasty. There is evidence that
Chan Buddhists adopted practices from
Chinese Esoteric Buddhism in
findings from Dunhuang. According to Henrik Sørensen, several successors of
Shenxiu (such as Jingxian and Yixing) were also students of the
Zhenyan (Mantra) school. Influential esoteric
dhāraṇī, such as the
Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī Sūtra and the
Nīlakaṇṭha Dhāraṇī, also begin to be cited in the literature of the Baotang school during the Tang dynasty. The eighth-century Chan monks of
Shaolin temple also practiced esoteric practices, such as mantras and dharanis. Many mantras have been preserved since the Tang period and continue to be practiced in modern monasteries. One common example is the
Śūraṅgama Mantra, which is commonly chanted by monastics as part of the
morning liturgy (
Chaosong) and
evening liturgy (
Musong) in temples. Various rituals that continue to be practiced by Chan monastics, such as the tantric
Yujia Yankou rite and the extensive
Shuilu Fahui ceremony, also involve esoteric aspects, including
maṇḍala offerings,
deity yoga and the invocation of esoteric deities such as the
Five Wisdom Buddhas and the
Ten Wisdom Kings. In Japan, Zen schools also adopted esoteric rites and continue to perform them. These include the ambrosia gate (
kanro mon)
ghost festival ritual which includes esoteric elements, the secret
Dharma transmission (
shihō) rituals and in some cases the
goma ritual. During the
Joseon Dynasty, the Korean Zen (Seon) was highly inclusive and ecumenical. This extended to Esoteric Buddhist lore and rituals (that appear in Seon literature from the 15th century onwards). According to Sørensen, the writings of several Seon masters (such as
Hyujeong) reveal they were esoteric adepts. In
Japanese Zen, the use of esoteric practices within Zen is sometimes termed "mixed Zen" (
kenshū zen), and the influential Soto monk
Keizan Jōkin (1264–1325) was a major promoter of esoteric methods. Keizan was heavily influenced by
Shingon and
Shugendo, and is known for introducing numerous esoteric ritual forms into the
Soto school. Another influential Soto figure,
Menzan Zuihō (1683-1769), was also a practitioner of Shingon, having received esoteric initiation under a Shingon figure named Kisan Biku (). Similarly, numerous Rinzai figures were also esoteric practitioners, such as the Rinzai founder
Myōan Eisai (1141–1215) and
Enni Ben'en (1202–1280). Under Enni Ben'en's abbotship, Fumon-in (the future
Tōfuku-ji) held Shingon and
Tendai rituals. He also lectured on the esoteric
Mahavairocana sutra.
The arts Certain
arts such as
painting,
calligraphy,
poetry,
gardening,
flower arrangement,
tea ceremony and others have also been used as part of zen training and practice. Classical Chinese arts like
brush painting and
calligraphy were used by Chan monk painters such as
Guanxiu and
Muqi Fachang to communicate their spiritual understanding in unique ways to their students. Some Zen writers even argued that "devotion to an art" (Japanese: suki) could be a spiritual practice that leads to enlightenment, as the Japanese monk poet
Chōmei writes in his
Hosshinshū. Zen paintings are sometimes termed
zenga in Japanese.
Hakuin is one Japanese Zen master who was known to create a large corpus of unique
sumi-e (ink and wash paintings) and
Japanese calligraphy to communicate zen in a visual way. His work and that of his disciples were widely influential in
Japanese Zen. Another example of Zen arts can be seen in the short-lived
Fuke sect of Japanese Zen, which practiced a unique form of "blowing zen" (
suizen ) by playing the
shakuhachi bamboo flute.
Physical cultivation of
Chinese Chan, Shi DeRu and Shi DeYang Traditional martial arts, like
Chinese martial arts,
Japanese archery, other forms of Japanese
budō have also been seen as forms of zen praxis by some Zen schools. In China, this trend goes back to the influential
Shaolin Monastery in
Henan, which developed the first institutionalized form of
gōngfu. By the
late Ming, Shaolin
gōngfu was very popular and widespread, as evidenced by mentions in various forms of Ming literature (featuring staff wielding fighting monks like
Sun Wukong) and historical sources, which also speak of Shaolin's impressive monastic army that rendered military service to the state in return for patronage. These
Shaolin practices, which began to develop around the 12th century, were also traditionally seen as a form of Chan Buddhist inner cultivation (today called
wuchan, "martial chan"). The Shaolin arts also made use of Taoist physical exercises (
daoyin), breathing, and
qi cultivation (
qigong) practices. They were seen as therapeutic practices, which improved "internal strength" (
neili), health and longevity (lit. "nourishing life"
yangsheng), as well as means to spiritual liberation. The influence of these Taoist practices can be seen in the work of Wang Zuyuan (ca. 1820–after 1882), whose
Illustrated Exposition of Internal Techniques (
Neigong tushuo) shows how Shaolin monks drew on Taoist methods like those of the
Yijin Jing and
Eight pieces of brocade. According to the modern Chan master Sheng Yen,
Chinese Buddhism has adopted
internal cultivation exercises from the Shaolin tradition as ways to "harmonize the body and develop concentration in the midst of activity." This is because, "techniques for harmonizing the
vital energy are powerful assistants to the cultivation of
samadhi and
spiritual insight."
Korean Seon also has developed a similar form of active physical training, termed
Sunmudo. , the temple also has a
Dōjō for the practice of
Kyūdō and the Zen priests practice this art here. In
Japan, the classic combat arts (
budō) and zen practice have been in contact since the embrace of
Rinzai Zen by the
Hōjō clan in the 13th century, who applied zen discipline to their martial practice. One influential figure in this relationship was the Rinzai priest
Takuan Sōhō who was well known for his writings on zen and
budō addressed to the
samurai class (especially his
The Unfettered Mind) . The
Rinzai school also adopted certain Chinese practices involving
qi (which are also common in Taoism). They were introduced by
Hakuin (1686–1769), who learned various techniques from a hermit named Hakuyu, who helped Hakuin cure his "Zen sickness" (a condition of physical and mental exhaustion). These energetic practices, known as
naikan, are based on focusing the mind, and one's vital energy (
ki) on the
tanden (a spot slightly below the navel). == Doctrine ==