Prehistory and antiquity figurine, 4000–4500 BC Archaeological evidence of
Paleolithic settlements on the territory of present-day Serbia is scarce. A fragment of a hominid jaw found in
Sićevo (Mala
Balanica) is believed to be up to 525,000–397,000 years old. Approximately 6,500 BC, during the
Neolithic, the
Starčevo and
Vinča cultures existed in the region of modern-day Belgrade. They dominated much of
Southeast Europe as well as parts of
Central Europe and
Anatolia. Several important archaeological sites from this era, including
Lepenski Vir and
Vinča-Belo Brdo, still exist near the
Danube. During the
Iron Age, local tribes of
Triballi,
Dardani, and
Autariatae were encountered by the
Ancient Greeks during their cultural and political expansion into the region, from the 5th up to the 2nd century BC. The Celtic tribe of
Scordisci settled throughout the area in the 3rd century BC. It formed a tribal state, building several fortifications, including their capital at
Singidunum (present-day Belgrade) and Naissos (present-day
Niš). The
Romans conquered much of the territory in the 2nd century BC. In 167 BC, the
Roman province of
Illyricum was established; the remainder was conquered around 75 BC, forming the Roman province of
Moesia Superior; the modern-day
Srem region was conquered in 9 BC; and Bačka and Banat in 106 AD after the
Dacian Wars. As a result of this, contemporary Serbia extends fully or partially over several former Roman provinces, including
Moesia,
Pannonia,
Praevalitana,
Dalmatia,
Dacia, and
Macedonia. Seventeen Roman Emperors were born in the area of modern-day Serbia, second only to contemporary Italy. The most famous of these was
Constantine the Great, the first Christian Emperor, who issued an edict ordering
religious tolerance throughout the Empire. , 298
AD, a UNESCO
World Heritage Site; Some historians believe as many as 18
Roman emperors were born in modern-day Serbia When the Roman Empire was divided in 395, most of Serbia remained under the
Byzantine Empire, and its northwestern parts were included in the
Western Roman Empire. By the 6th century,
South Slavs migrated into the Byzantine territory in large numbers. They merged with the local
Romanised population that was gradually assimilated.
Middle Ages , known as Dušan the Mighty, in
Skopje, as
Emperor of Serbs and Greeks in 1346
White Serbs, an
early Slavic tribe from White Serbia eventually settled in an area between the
Sava river and the
Dinaric Alps. By the beginning of the 9th century, Serbia achieved a level of statehood.
Christianisation of Serbia was a gradual process, finalised by the middle of the 9th century. In the mid-10th-century, the
Serbian state experienced a fall. During the 11th and 12th century,
Serbian state frequently fought with the neighbouring Byzantine Empire. Between 1166 and 1371, Serbia was ruled by the
Nemanjić dynasty, under whom the state was elevated to
a kingdom in 1217, and an
empire in 1346, under
Stefan Dušan. The
Serbian Orthodox Church was organised as an
autocephalous archbishopric in 1219, through the effort of
Sava, the country's patron saint, and in 1346 it was raised to the
Patriarchate. Monuments of the Nemanjić period survive in many
monasteries (several being
World Heritage sites) and
fortifications. During these centuries the Serbian state (and influence) expanded significantly. The northern part (modern
Vojvodina), was ruled by the
Kingdom of Hungary. The period after 1371, known as the
Fall of the Serbian Empire saw the once-powerful state fragmented into several principalities, culminating in the
Battle of Kosovo (1389) against the rising
Ottoman Empire. By the end of the 14th century, the Turks had conquered and ruled the territories south of the
Šar Mountains. The political stronghold of Serbia shifted northwards, when the capital of the newly established
Serbian Despotate was transferred to Belgrade in 1403, before moving to
Smederevo in 1430. The Despotate was then under the double
vassalage of Hungary and the Ottoman Empire. The fall of Smederevo on 20 June 1459, which marked the full conquest of the Serbian Despotate by the Ottomans, also symbolically signified the end of the Serbian state.
Ottoman and Habsburg rule in 1389 is particularly important to Serbian history, tradition and
national identity In all Serbian lands conquered by the Ottomans, the native nobility was eliminated and the peasantry was
enserfed to Ottoman rulers, while much of the clergy fled or were confined to the isolated monasteries. Under the Ottoman system, Serbs and Christians were considered an
inferior class and subjected to heavy taxes, and a portion of the Serbian population experienced
Islamisation. Many Serbs were recruited during the
devshirme system, a
form of slavery, in which boys from Balkan Christian families were
forcibly converted to
Islam and trained for infantry units of the
Ottoman army known as the
Janissaries. The Serbian Patriarchate of Peć was extinguished in 1463, but reestablished in 1557, providing for limited continuation of Serbian cultural traditions within the Ottoman Empire, under the
Millet system. After the loss of statehood to the Ottoman Empire, Serbian resistance continued in northern regions (modern Vojvodina), under titular despots (until 1537), and popular leaders like
Jovan Nenad (1526–1527). From 1521 to 1552, Ottomans conquered Belgrade and regions of Syrmia, Bačka, and Banat. Wars and rebellions constantly challenged Ottoman rule. One of the most significant was the
Banat Uprising in 1594 and 1595, which was part of the
Long War (1593–1606) between the Habsburgs and the Ottomans. The area of modern Vojvodina endured a century-long Ottoman occupation before being ceded to the
Habsburg monarchy, partially by the
Treaty of Karlovci (1699), and fully by the
Treaty of Požarevac (1718). '', by
Paja Jovanović (), depicting the
Great Migration of 1690, led by the patriarch
Arsenije III Crnojević During the
Habsburg-Ottoman war (1683–1699), much of Serbia switched from Ottoman rule to
Habsburg control from 1688 to 1690. However, the Ottoman army reconquered a large part of Serbia in the winter of 1689/1690, leading to a brutal massacre of the civilian population by uncontrolled
Albanian and
Tatar units. As a result of the persecutions, several tens of thousands of Serbs, led by the patriarch,
Arsenije III Crnojević, fled northwards to settle in
Hungary, an event known as the
Great Migration of 1690. In August 1690, following several petitions, the Emperor
Leopold I formally granted Serbs from the Habsburg monarchy a first set of "privileges", primarily to guarantee them freedom of religion. As a consequence, the ecclesiastical centre of the Serbs also moved northwards, to the
Metropolitanate of Karlovci, and the Serbian Patriarchate of Peć was once-again abolished by the Ottomans in 1766. In 1718–39, the Habsburg monarchy occupied much of
Central Serbia and established the
Kingdom of Serbia as
crownland. Those gains were lost by the
Treaty of Belgrade in 1739, when the Ottomans retook the region. Apart from territory of modern-day Vojvodina which remained under the Habsburg Empire, central regions of Serbia were occupied once again by the Habsburgs in
1788–1792.
Revolution and independence , led by
Karađorđe and
Miloš Obrenović, marked the foundation of
modern Serbia The
Serbian Revolution for independence from the Ottoman Empire lasted eleven years, from 1804 until 1815. During the
First Serbian Uprising (1804–1813), led by vožd
Karađorđe Petrović, Serbia was independent for almost a decade before the Ottoman army was able to reoccupy the country. The
Second Serbian Uprising began in 1815, led by
Miloš Obrenović; it ended with a compromise between Serbian revolutionaries and Ottoman authorities. Serbia was one of the first nations in the Balkans to abolish
feudalism. The
Akkerman Convention in 1826, the
Treaty of Adrianople in 1829 and finally, the
Hatt-i Sharif, recognised the
suzerainty of Serbia. The
First Serbian Constitution was adopted on 15 February 1835, making the country one of the first to adopt a democratic constitution in Europe. 15 February is now commemorated as
Statehood Day, a
public holiday. Following the clashes between the Ottoman army and Serbs in Belgrade in 1862, and under pressure from the
Great Powers, by 1867 the last Turkish soldiers left the Principality, making the country
de facto independent. By enacting a new constitution in 1869, without consulting the Porte,
Serbian diplomats confirmed the
de facto independence of the country. In 1876, Serbia declared war on the Ottoman Empire, siding with the ongoing Christian uprisings in
Bosnia-Herzegovina and
Bulgaria. The formal independence of the country was internationally recognised at the
Congress of Berlin in 1878, which ended the
Russo-Turkish War; this treaty, however, prohibited Serbia from uniting with other Serbian regions by placing Bosnia and Herzegovina under
Austro-Hungarian occupation, alongside the occupation of the region of
Raška. From 1815 to 1903, the principality was ruled by the
House of Obrenović, save for the rule of Prince
Aleksandar Karađorđević between 1842 and 1858. In 1882, Principality of Serbia became the Kingdom of Serbia, ruled by
King Milan I. The
House of Karađorđević, descendants of the revolutionary leader Karađorđe Petrović, assumed power in 1903 following the
May Overthrow. The
1848 revolution in Austria led to the establishment of the autonomous territory of
Serbian Vojvodina; by 1849, the region was transformed into the
Voivodeship of Serbia and Banat of Temeschwar.
Balkan Wars and World War I led the nation during the
Great Serbian Retreat in 1915.
Serbia lost about 850,000 people, a quarter of its pre-war population. In the
First Balkan War in 1912, the
Balkan League defeated the Ottoman Empire and captured its
European territories, which enabled territorial expansion of the Kingdom of Serbia into regions of Raška,
Kosovo,
Metohija, and
Vardarian Macedonia. The
Second Balkan War soon ensued when Bulgaria turned on its former allies, but was defeated, resulting in the
Treaty of Bucharest. In two years, Serbia enlarged its territory by 80% and its population by 50%, it also suffered high casualties on the eve of World War I, with more than 36,000 dead. Austria-Hungary became wary of the rising regional power on its borders and its potential to become an anchor for unification of Serbs and other South Slavs, and the relationship between the two countries became tense. The
assassination of
Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria on 28 June 1914 in
Sarajevo by
Gavrilo Princip, a member of the
Young Bosnia organisation, led to Austria-Hungary declaring war on Serbia, on 28 July 1914, setting off World War I. Serbia won the first major battles of the war, including the
Battle of Cer, and the
Battle of Kolubara. Despite initial success, it was eventually overpowered by the
Central Powers in 1915 and
Austro-Hungarian occupation of Serbia followed. Most of its army and some people
retreated to
Greece and
Corfu, suffering immense losses on the way. After the Central Powers' military situation on other fronts worsened, the remains of the Serb army returned east and led a final breakthrough through enemy lines on 15 September 1918, liberating Serbia and defeating Bulgaria and Austria-Hungary. Serbia, with its
campaign, was a major Balkan Entente Power which contributed significantly to the Allied victory in the Balkans in November 1918, especially by helping France force Bulgaria's
capitulation. Serbia's casualties accounted for 8% of the total Entente military deaths; 58% (243,600) soldiers of the Serbian army perished in the war. The total number of casualties is placed around 700,000, more than 16% of Serbia's prewar size, and a majority (57%) of its overall male population. Serbia suffered
the biggest casualty rate in World War I.
Kingdom of Yugoslavia , the Serbian Crown Lands in
Austria-Hungary, (today's Vojvodina) declared unification with the
Kingdom of Serbia on 25 November 1918 The
Corfu Declaration was a formal agreement between the government-in-exile of the Kingdom of Serbia and the
Yugoslav Committee (anti-Habsburg South Slav émigrés) that pledged to unify Kingdom of Serbia and
Kingdom of Montenegro with Austria-Hungary's South Slav autonomous crown lands:
Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia,
Kingdom of Dalmatia,
Slovenia, Vojvodina (then part of the Kingdom of Hungary) and
Bosnia and Herzegovina in a post-war Yugoslav state. It was signed on 20 July 1917 on Corfu. As the Austro-Hungarian Empire collapsed, the territory of Syrmia united with Serbia on 24 November 1918. On 26 November 1918, the
Podgorica Assembly deposed the
House of Petrović-Njegoš and united Montenegro with Serbia. On 1 December 1918, in Belgrade, Serbian Prince Regent
Alexander Karađorđević proclaimed the
Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, under King
Peter I of Serbia. King Peter was succeeded by his son, Alexander, in August 1921. Serb centralists and Croat autonomists clashed in the parliament, and most governments were fragile and short-lived.
Nikola Pašić, a conservative prime minister, headed or dominated most governments until his death. King Alexander established a
dictatorship in 1929 with the aim of establishing the
Yugoslav ideology and single
Yugoslav nation, changed the name of the country to Yugoslavia. The effect of Alexander's dictatorship was to further alienate the non-Serbs living in Yugoslavia from the idea of unity. Alexander was assassinated in
Marseille, during an official visit in 1934 by
Vlado Chernozemski, member of the
IMRO. Alexander was succeeded by his eleven-year-old son
Peter II. In August 1939 the
Cvetković–Maček Agreement established an autonomous
Banate of Croatia as a solution to Croatian concerns.
World War II In 1941, in spite of Yugoslav attempts to remain neutral, the
Axis powers invaded Yugoslavia. The territory of modern Serbia was divided between Hungary, Bulgaria, the Independent State of Croatia, Greater Albania and Montenegro, while the remainder was placed under the
military administration of
Nazi Germany, with
Serbian puppet governments led by
Milan Aćimović and
Milan Nedić assisted by
Dimitrije Ljotić's fascist organisation
Yugoslav National Movement (Zbor). The Yugoslav territory was the scene of a civil war between
royalist Chetniks commanded by
Draža Mihailović and
communist partisans commanded by
Josip Broz Tito. Axis auxiliary units of the
Serbian Volunteer Corps and the
Serbian State Guard fought against both of these forces. The
siege of Kraljevo was a major battle of the
uprising in Serbia, led by Chetnik forces against the Nazis. Several days after the battle began the German forces committed a massacre of approximately 2,000 civilians in an event known as the
Kraljevo massacre, in a reprisal for the attack.
Draginac and Loznica massacre of 2,950 villagers in Western Serbia in 1941 was the first large execution of civilians in occupied Serbia by
Germans, with
Kragujevac massacre and
Novi Sad Raid of Jews and Serbs by Hungarian fascists being the most notorious, with over 3,000 victims in each case. After one year of occupation, around 16,000
Serbian Jews were murdered in the area, or around 90% of its pre-war Jewish population during
The Holocaust in Serbia. Many concentration camps were established across the area.
Banjica concentration camp was the largest concentration camp and jointly run by the German army and Nedić's regime, with primary victims being Serbian Jews,
Roma, and Serb political prisoners. Hundreds of thousands of ethnic Serbs fled the Axis
puppet state known as the
Independent State of Croatia and sought refuge in German-occupied Serbia, seeking to escape the large-scale persecution and
Genocide of Serbs, Jews, and Roma being committed by the
Ustaše regime. The number of Serb victims was approximately 300,000 to 350,000. According to Tito himself, Serbs made up the vast majority of
anti-fascist fighters and
Yugoslav Partisans for the whole course of
World War II. The
Republic of Užice was a short-lived liberated territory established by the Partisans and the first liberated territory in World War II Europe, organised as a military mini-state that existed in the autumn of 1941 in the west of
occupied Serbia. By late 1944, the
Belgrade Offensive swung in favour of the partisans in the civil war; the partisans subsequently gained control of Yugoslavia. Following the Belgrade Offensive, the
Syrmian Front was the last major military action of World War II in Serbia. A study by
Vladimir Žerjavić estimates total
war-related deaths in Yugoslavia at 1,027,000, including 273,000 in Serbia.
Socialist Yugoslavia . The First
Non-Aligned Movement Summit Conference took place in
Belgrade in September 1961 The victory of the Communist Partisans resulted in the abolition of the monarchy and a subsequent constitutional referendum. A
one-party state was soon established in Yugoslavia by the
Communist Party of Yugoslavia. It is claimed between 60,000 and 70,000 people died in Serbia during the
1944–45 communist purge. Serbia became a constituent republic within the
Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia known as the
People's Republic of Serbia, and had a republic-branch of the federal communist party, the
League of Communists of Serbia. Serbia's most powerful and influential politician in Tito-era Yugoslavia was
Aleksandar Ranković, one of the "big four" Yugoslav leaders. Ranković was later removed from the office because of the disagreements regarding Kosovo's
nomenklatura and the unity of Serbia. Ranković's dismissal was highly unpopular among Serbs. Pro-decentralisation reformers in Yugoslavia succeeded in the late 1960s in attaining substantial decentralisation of powers, creating substantial autonomy in Kosovo and Vojvodina, and recognising a distinctive "
Muslim" nationality. As a result of these reforms, there was a massive overhaul of Kosovo's nomenklatura and police, that shifted from being Serb-dominated to ethnic Albanian-dominated through firing Serbs on a large scale. Further concessions were made to the ethnic Albanians of Kosovo in response to unrest, including the creation of the
University of Pristina as an
Albanian language institution. These changes created widespread fear among Serbs of being treated as
second-class citizens. Belgrade, the capital of FPR Yugoslavia and PR Serbia, hosted the first
Non-Aligned Movement Summit in September 1961, as well as the first major gathering of the
Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) with the aim of implementing the
Helsinki Accords from October 1977 to March 1978. The
1972 smallpox outbreak in SAP Kosovo and other parts of SR Serbia was the last major outbreak of
smallpox in
Europe since World War II.
Breakup of Yugoslavia and political transition and territories of Serb breakaway states
Republika Srpska and
Republika Srpska Krajina during the
Yugoslav wars In 1989,
Slobodan Milošević rose to power in Serbia. Milošević promised a reduction of powers for the autonomous provinces of Kosovo and Vojvodina, where his allies subsequently took over power, during the
Anti-bureaucratic revolution. Milošević effectively put 4 out of 8 federal units of Yugoslavia under his control, which ignited tensions and conflict with the communist leadership of the other republics. Yugoslavia subsequently
broke up, with
Slovenia,
Croatia,
Bosnia and Herzegovina, and
Macedonia declaring independence during 1991 and 1992. Serbia and Montenegro remained together as the
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY). Multi-party democracy was introduced in Serbia in 1990, officially dismantling the one-party system. Despite constitutional changes, Milošević maintained strong political influence over the state media and security apparatus. When the ruling
Socialist Party of Serbia refused to accept its defeat in
municipal elections in 1996, Serbians engaged in
large protests against the government. In 1998,
continued clashes between the Albanian guerilla
Kosovo Liberation Army and Yugoslav security forces led to the short
Kosovo War (1998–99), in which
NATO intervened, leading to the withdrawal of Serbian forces and the establishment of
UN administration in the province. After the Yugoslav Wars, Serbia became home to highest number of
refugees and
internally displaced persons in Europe. After
presidential elections in September 2000, opposition parties accused Milošević of
electoral fraud. A campaign of
civil resistance followed, led by the
Democratic Opposition of Serbia (DOS), a broad coalition of anti-Milošević parties. This culminated on 5 October when half a million people from all over the country congregated in Belgrade, compelling Milošević to concede defeat. The
fall of Milošević ended Yugoslavia's
international isolation. Milošević was sent to the
International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. The DOS announced that FR Yugoslavia would seek to join the
European Union. In 2003, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was renamed
Serbia and Montenegro; the EU opened negotiations with the country for the
Stabilisation and Association Agreement. Serbia's political climate remained tense and in 2003, Prime Minister
Zoran Đinđić was
assassinated as result of a plot originating from organised crime and former security officials. In
2004 unrest in Kosovo took place, leaving 19 people dead and a number of Serbian Orthodox churches and monasteries destroyed or damaged.
Contemporary period On 21 May 2006, Montenegro held a
referendum which showed 55.4% of voters in favour of independence, just above the 55% required by the referendum. This was followed on 5 June 2006 by Serbia's declaration of independence, marking the re-emergence of Serbia as an independent state. The
National Assembly of Serbia declared Serbia to be the legal successor to the former state union. The Assembly of Kosovo unilaterally declared independence from Serbia on 17 February 2008. Serbia immediately condemned the declaration and continues to deny any statehood to Kosovo. The declaration has sparked varied responses from the international community.
Status-neutral talks between Serbia and Kosovo-Albanian authorities are held in
Brussels, mediated by the EU. Serbia officially applied for membership in the European Union on 22 December 2009, and received candidate status on 1 March 2012, following a delay in December 2011. Following a positive recommendation of the
European Commission and
European Council in June 2013, negotiations to join the EU commenced in January 2014. In 2012
Aleksandar Vučić and his
Serbian Progressive Party came to power. According to a number of international analysts, Serbia has suffered from
democratic backsliding into
authoritarianism, followed by a decline in
media freedom and civil liberties. After the
COVID-19 pandemic spread
to Serbia in March 2020, a
state of emergency was declared and a
curfew was introduced for the first time in Serbia since World War II. In April 2022, President Aleksandar Vučić was
re-elected. In December 2023, President Vučić won a snap
parliamentary election. The election resulted in protests, with opposition supporters claiming that the election result was fraudulent. On 16 January 2022, a
Serbian constitutional referendum took place in which citizens chose to amend the Constitution concerning the judiciary. The changes were presented as a step towards reducing political influence in the judicial system. The country was chosen to host international
specialised exposition Expo 2027. The Serbian government is working with
Rio Tinto corporation on a project which aims to develop Europe's biggest
lithium mine. Mining lithium became a matter of debate in the society and several protests against mining took place. In 2024–2025, large-scale
anti-corruption protests, some violent, erupted. ==Geography==