Amphibians Judaism forbids the consumption of
amphibians such as
frogs. The restriction is described in
Leviticus 11:29-30 and 42–43. Derivative chemical products from amphibians, as well as with other proscribed animals, must be avoided. In other cultures, foods such as
frog legs are treasured as delicacies, and the animals may be raised commercially in some circumstances.
Bats In Judaism, the
Deuteronomic Code and
Priestly Code explicitly prohibit the bat. Bat meat, like that of all predatory land animals, is
haram (prohibited) in Islam.
Birds The
Torah (
Leviticus 11:13) explicitly states that the
eagle,
vulture, and
osprey are not to be eaten. A bird now commonly raised for meat in some areas, the
ostrich, is explicitly banned as food in some interpretations of Leviticus 11:16. Rabbis have frequently inferred that traditions that explicitly prohibit
birds of prey and natural
scavengers create a distinction with other avian species; thus, eating
chickens,
ducks,
geese, and
turkeys is allowed. In
Western cultures today, most people regard
songbirds as backyard wildlife rather than as food. A
balut is a developing bird embryo (usually a duck or chicken) that is boiled and eaten from the shell. Part of the Quran includes understanding and respecting the law that any animal products should not be eaten if the animal has not been slaughtered properly, making the animal or animal-product "maytah". Because balut is an egg containing a partly-developed embryo, Muslims believe this makes it "haram", or "forbidden". The
ortolan bunting developed as a more recent taboo food among French gourmets. The tiny birds were captured alive, force-fed, then drowned in Armagnac, "roasted whole and eaten that way, bones and all, while the diner draped his head with a linen napkin to preserve the precious aromas and, some believe, to hide from God."
Camels The eating of
camels is prohibited by the Torah in and . The Torah considers the camel unclean, even though it chews the cud, or
regurgitates, the way bovines, sheep, goats, deer, antelope, and giraffes (all of which are
kosher) do, because it does not meet the
cloven hoof criterion. Like these animals, camels (and llamas) are
ruminants with a multi-chambered stomach. Camels are
even-toed ungulates, with feet split in two. However, a camel's feet form soft pads rather than hard hooves. In Islam, the eating of camels is allowed, and is indeed traditional in the Islamic heartland in
Saudi Arabia and the
Arabian Peninsula.
Cattle Cattle hold a traditional place as objects of reverence in countries such as
India. Some Hindus, particularly
Brahmins, are vegetarian and strictly abstain from eating meat. Most of those who do eat meat abstain from the consumption of
beef, as the cow holds a sacred place in
Hinduism. For example, tradition states that the
goddess Kamadhenu manifests herself as a wish-granting divine cow, with such stories repeated over generations.
Bullocks were the primary source of agricultural power and transportation in the early days, and as India adopted an agricultural lifestyle, the cow proved to be a very useful animal. This respect, stemming out of necessity, led to abstaining from killing cows for food; for example, if a famine-stricken village kills and eats its bullocks, they will not be available to pull the plough and the cart when next planting season comes. However, little evidence has been found to support this conjecture. Areas suffering from famine may resort to consuming cattle in efforts to survive until the next season. By Indian law, the slaughter of female cattle is banned in almost all
Indian states except
Kerala,
West Bengal and the
seven north eastern states. A person involved in either cow slaughter or its illegal transportation could be jailed in many states. Slaughter of cows is an extremely provocative issue for many Hindus. Some
Chinese Buddhists discourage the consumption of beef, although it is not considered taboo. However, for
Sinhalese Buddhists, it is taboo and considered to be ungrateful to kill the animal whose milk and labour provides livelihoods to many
Sinhalese people.
Burmese Buddhists also have a taboo against eating beef, because they consider cows as an animal responsible for working in the fields with human beings. However, it is not strictly considered taboo in cities such as
Mandalay and
Yangon. In the town of
Kudus on the
Indonesian island of
Java, there is also a taboo on eating beef, despite most people being Muslim, to avoid offending Hindus.
Chewing gum A chewing gum sales ban has been in place since 1992 in Singapore. It is currently not illegal to chew gum in
Singapore, merely to import it and sell it, with certain exceptions. Since 2004, an exception has existed for therapeutic, dental, and nicotine
chewing gum, which can be bought from a doctor or registered pharmacist.
Chickens Ibrahim ibn Yaqub, a Jewish traveler who visited Slavic territories in the 10th century, described the meat-eating habits of the ancestors of Poles. He saw that these Slavs did not eat
chickens because they believed chicken causes a loss of strength and a red rash. Some who practice
Slavic paganism will abide by this taboo to this day.
Crustaceans and other seafood '', for sale at a market in
Piraeus. Almost all types of non-
piscine seafood, such as
shellfish,
lobster,
shrimp or
crayfish, are forbidden by Judaism because such animals live in water but do not have both
fins and
scales. As a general rule, all seafood is permissible in the 3 ''
madh'hab'' of
Sunni Islam except Hanafi school of thought. The
Ja'fari school of
Islamic jurisprudence, which is followed by most
Shia Muslims, prohibits non-piscine (lacking scales) seafood, with the exception of shrimp.
Honey Honey is concentrated
nectar and
honeydew which has been
regurgitated by
bees. It is considered kosher even though
honey bees are not, an apparent exception to the normal rule that products of an unclean animal are also unclean. This topic is covered in the
Talmud and is explained to be permissible on the grounds that the bee does not originally make the first honey, the flower does, while the bees store and dehydrate the liquid into honey. This is different from
royal jelly, which is produced by bees directly and is considered non-kosher. Some vegans avoid honey as they would any other
animal product.
Insects In
Judaism and
Samaritanism, certain
locusts could be
kosher foods (Leviticus 11:22). Otherwise,
insects are considered nonkosher. Kashrut also requires that practitioners check other foods carefully for insects. In Islam, the eating of most insects is prohibited, but locusts are considered lawful food and do not require ritual slaughtering.
Dogs specialty" in
Hubei,
People's Republic of China. In
Western countries, eating dog meat is generally considered taboo, though that taboo has been broken under threat of starvation in the past. Dog meat has been eaten in every major German crisis at least since the time of
Frederick the Great, and is commonly referred to as "blockade mutton". In the early 20th century, consumption of dog meat in Germany was common. Suspicions about the provenance of Frankfurter meat sold by German immigrants in the United States led to the coinage of the term '
hot dog'. In 1937, a meat inspection law targeting
trichinella was introduced for pigs, dogs,
boars, foxes,
badgers, and other carnivores. Dog meat has been prohibited in Germany since 1986. In 2009 a scandal erupted when a farm near the Polish town of
Częstochowa was discovered rearing dogs to be rendered down into
lard. In
Switzerland, an article in 2012 by The Local reported the continued consumption of dogs within the nation. Speculation arose suggesting that farmers in the German-speaking cantons of Appenzell and St. Gallen were known to personally slaughter these animals. According to the ancient
Hindu scriptures (cf.
Manusmṛti and medicinal texts like
Sushruta Samhita), ''dog's meat'' was regarded as the most unclean (and rather poisonous) food possible. Dog's meat is also regarded as unclean under Jewish and Islamic dietary laws; therefore, consumption of dog meat is forbidden by both of those religious traditions. In
Irish mythology, legend recounts how
Cú Chulainn, the great hero of
Ulster whose name means
Culann's Hound, was presented with a
Morton's fork, forcing him to either break his
geis (taboo) about eating dog meat or declining hospitality; Cú Chulainn chose to eat the meat, leading ultimately to his death. In
Mexico, in the
pre-Columbian era, a hairless breed of dog named
xoloitzcuintle was commonly eaten. After colonization, this custom stopped. In
East Asia, most countries rarely consume dog meat with the exception of
China,
Vietnam,
North and South Korea either because of Islamic or
Buddhist values or animal rights as in Taiwan.
Manchus have a prohibition against the eating of dog meat, which is sometimes consumed by the Manchus' neighboring
Northeastern Asian peoples. The Manchus also avoid the wearing of hats made of dog's fur. In addition to Manchus,
Chinese Mongol,
Miao,
Muslims,
Tibetan,
Yao and
Yi have a taboo against dog meat. In
Indonesia, due to its majority Islamic population, consuming dog meat is prohibited, with exception of Christian
Batak and
Minahasan ethnic groups that traditionally consumed dog meat. The
Urapmin people of the
New Guinea Highlands do not kill or eat dogs, unlike some neighboring tribes, nor do they let dogs breathe on their food.
Bears Bears are not considered
kosher animals in Judaism. Bear meat, like all
predatory terrestrial animals, is forbidden by Islam.
Cats There is a strong taboo against eating cats in many
Western parts of the world, including most of the
Americas and
Europe. Cat meat is forbidden by Jewish and Islamic law as both religions forbid the eating of carnivores. Cats are commonly regarded as
pets in Western countries, or as working animals, kept to control
vermin, not as a food animal, and consumption of cats is thus seen as a barbaric act by a large part of the population in those countries. In
Switzerland, a 2012 report by The Local also highlighted the consumption of cats within the country. Many
Hindu and Orthodox
Sikh vegetarians also refrain from eating eggs. An egg that naturally contains a spot of blood may not be eaten under Jewish and Islamic tradition, but eggs without any blood are commonly consumed (and are not considered to be meat, so may be eaten with dairy). Elephant meat is also not considered kosher by
Jewish dietary laws because elephants do not have
cloven hooves and are not
ruminants. Some scholars of
Islamic dietary laws have ruled that it is forbidden for
Muslims to eat elephant because elephants fall under the prohibited category of fanged or predatory animals.
Hindus strictly avoid any contact with elephant meat due to the importance of the god
Ganesha who is widely worshipped by Hindus. The
Kalika Purana distinguishes
bali (sacrifice) and
mahabali (great sacrifice) for the ritual killing of
goats and
elephants respectively, though the reference to humans in
Shakti theology is symbolic and done in
effigy in modern times.
Fish Among the
Somali people, most
clans have a taboo against the consumption of fish, and do not intermarry with the few occupational clans that do eat it. There are taboos on eating fish among many upland
pastoralists and
agriculturalists (and even some coastal peoples) inhabiting parts of
Ethiopia,
Eritrea,
Somalia,
Kenya, and northern
Tanzania. This is sometimes referred to as the "Cushitic fish-taboo", as Cushitic speakers are believed to have been responsible for the introduction of fish avoidance to
East Africa, though not all Cushitic groups avoid fish. The zone of the fish taboo roughly coincides with the area where
Cushitic languages are spoken, and as a general rule, speakers of
Nilo-Saharan and
Semitic languages do not have this taboo, and indeed many are watermen. The few
Bantu and
Nilotic groups in East Africa that do practice fish avoidance also reside in areas where
Cushites appear to have lived in earlier times. Within East Africa, the fish taboo is found no further than Tanzania. This is attributed to the local presence of the
tsetse fly and in areas beyond, which likely acted as a barrier to further southern migrations by
wandering pastoralists, the principal fish-avoiders.
Zambia and
Mozambique's Bantus were therefore spared subjugation by pastoral groups, and they consequently nearly all consume fish.). Sunni Muslim laws are more flexible in this. Catfish and shark are generally seen as halal as they are special types of fish. Eel is generally considered permissible in the four Sunni ''madh'hab''. The Ja'fari jurisprudence followed by most Shia Muslims forbids all species of fish that do not have scales, as well as all shell fish species except prawns. Many tribes of the
Southwestern United States, including the
Navajo,
Apache, and
Zuñi, have a taboo against fish and other aquatic animals, including
waterfowl. The people of the
Blackfoot Confederacy have a taboo against the consumption against fish (as well as birds including waterfowl, though the fish taboo has endured the most through generations). According to a lecture by Grant Manyheads of
Blackfoot Crossing Historical Park, the Blackfoot's cuisine was based in a belief that only certain animals, those with four legs and hooves and which grazed on grass, were seen as "clean" and thus suitable for consumption. This meant that any other animals, including fish, birds (especially waterfowl), and clawed animals such as bears and dogs or wolves, were not considered suitable or clean enough to eat. However, this taboo was broken in times of need and starvation. Breaking the taboo was seen as an especially desperate act among the Blackfoot, but was not seen to carry any particular religious or spiritual repercussions, hence the allowance of breaking the taboo out of desperation.
Norse settlers in Greenland (10th–15th centuries AD) may have developed a taboo against fish consumption, as recounted in
Jared Diamond's
Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed. This is unusual, as
Norsemen did not generally have a taboo against fish, Diamond noting that "Fish bones account for much less than 0.1% of animal bones recovered at Greenland Norse archeological sites, compared to between 50 and 95% at most contemporary
Iceland, northern
Norway, and
Shetland sites." However, this has been disputed by archaeologists.
Foie gras Foie gras, the fatty liver of geese that have been force-fed according to French law, has been the subject of
controversy and prohibitions exist in different parts of the world. In July 2014, India banned the import of foie gras making it the first and only country in the world to do so, causing dismay among some of the nation's chefs. In August 2003, Argentina banned foie gras production as it is considered a mistreatment or an act of cruelty to animals. In 2023 foie gras production was banned in the
Flemish Region of Belgium.
Animal fetuses Many countries observe this as a delicacy but it is a taboo in most countries. Considered as corpses, fetuses of goats and sheep are a delicacy in Anglo-Indian culture, despite being taboo in both parent cultures (English and Indian). This Anglo-Indian dish is known as "
kutti pi" (fetus bag).
Fungi Vedic
Brahmins, Gaudiya
Vaishnavas,
tantriks and some
Buddhist priests abstain from
fungi, which are eschewed as they grow at night. In
Sweden and most of
Scandinavia mushrooms and fungi were traditionally not eaten due to strong associations with
folklore. This began to change in the 17th century, when the
French influenced upper class adopted mushrooms into their diet, and began to promote the consumption of
mushrooms throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, which has since lead to mushroom eating and
collecting becoming normalised.
Guinea pig and related rodents Guinea pigs, or
cuy, are commonly eaten in Peru, in the southwestern cities and villages of
Colombia, and among some populations in the highlands of
Ecuador, mostly in the
Andes highlands. Cuyes can be found on the menu of restaurants in
Lima and other cities in Peru, as well as in
Pasto, Colombia. Guinea pig meat is exported to the United States and European nations. In 2004, the
New York City Department of Parks and Recreation took legal action to stop vendors serving
cuy at an Ecuadorian festival in
Flushing Meadows Park.
New York State allows the consumption of guinea pigs, but
New York City prohibits it. Accusations of cultural persecution have since been leveled.
Giraffe Although
giraffes are technically considered kosher (since they chew their cuds and have split hooves), the more orthodox interpretation of Kashrut still forbids consumption of the meat, therefore marking the giraffe, despite with otherwise permissible characteristics, as non-kosher. The reason is the animal has no tradition of permissibility, meaning not allowed to be eaten, despite its signs of being a kosher animal. In addition, its large size and more aggressive behaviour puts a strain on logistics when performing
shechita (ritual slaughtering). Their vulnerable status has also played a role in prohibition by many rabbis. The long neck of the giraffe being difficult to perform the slaughter is not the reason why giraffe is non-kosher, despite this sometimes being presumed.
Herbs Some adherents of the
Greek Orthodox Church avoid
basil due to its association with the cross of Christ. It is believed that the cross was discovered in 325 AD by Saint Helen on a hill covered in beautiful, fragrant basil bushes, a hitherto unknown plant. The plant was named (
basilikón fytón) "royal plant" and today is grown and admired rather than eaten. Fine basil plants are brought to church every year on 14 September to commemorate this legend in a celebration known as the
Elevation of the Holy Cross.
Horse meat Horse meat is part of the cuisine of many countries in Europe, but is taboo in some religions and many countries. It is forbidden by
Jewish law, because the horse is not a ruminant, nor does it have cloven hooves. Similarly to dogs, eating horses was a taboo for the
Castro culture in Northwestern
Portugal, and it is still a counter-cultural practice in the region. Horse meat is forbidden by some sects of
Christianity. In 732 CE,
Pope Gregory III instructed Saint Boniface to suppress the
pagan practice of eating horses, calling it a "filthy and abominable custom". The
Christianisation of Iceland in 1000 CE was achieved only when the Church promised that
Icelanders could continue to eat horsemeat; once the Church had consolidated its power, the allowance was discontinued. Horsemeat is still popular in Iceland and is sold and consumed in the same way as beef,
lamb and pork. In
Islam, opinions vary as to the permissibility of horse meat. Some cite a
hadith forbidding it to Muslims, but others doubt its validity and authority. Wild horses and asses are generally seen as halal while domesticated donkeys are viewed as forbidden. Various Muslim cultures have differed in the attitude in eating the meat. Historically, Turks and Persians have eaten the meat, while in North Africa this is rare. In Canada, horse meat is legal. Most Canadian horse meat is exported to
Continental Europe or Japan. In the United States, sale and consumption of horse meat is illegal in
California and
Illinois. However, it was sold in the US during WW II, since beef was expensive, rationed and destined for the troops. The last horse meat slaughterhouse in the US was closed in 2007. The issue of horse consumption in the UK and Ireland was raised in 2013 with regards to the
2013 horse meat contamination scandal. Horse meat is generally avoided in the
Balkans (though not in Slovenia), either due to the horse being considered a noble animal or because eating horse meat is associated with war-time famine. However, it has a small
niche market in Serbia.
Humans Of all the taboo meat, human flesh ranks as the most heavily proscribed. In recent times, humans have consumed the flesh of fellow humans in rituals and out of insanity, hatred, or overriding hunger – never as a common part of their diet, but it is thought that the practice was once widespread among all humans. The
Fore people of Papua New Guinea engaged in
funerary cannibalism until the Australian government prohibited the practice in the late 1950s. Cannibalism was how the prion disease
kuru spread, though the link was unproven until 1967. The consumption of human flesh is forbidden by Hinduism, Islam, and Rabbinic Judaism.
Primates (apes, monkeys, etc.) Monkey brains is a dish consisting of, at least partially, the
brain of some species of
monkey or
ape. In
Western popular culture, its consumption is repeatedly portrayed and debated, often in the context of portraying exotic cultures as exceptionally cruel, callous, and/or strange. Monkeys are revered animals in India, largely because of the monkey god
Hanuman. Many Hindus are vegetarian and do not eat any type of meat, including monkeys. Meat eating Indians also do not kill or eat monkeys. Killing and eating monkeys (or other animals which are considered wild) is both taboo and illegal in India. In traditional
Islamic dietary laws, the eating of monkeys is also
forbidden. In Malagasy culture, lemurs are considered to have
souls (
ambiroa) which can get revenge if mocked while alive or if killed in a cruel fashion. Because of this, lemurs, like many other elements of daily life, have been a source of
taboos, known locally as
fady, which can be based around stories with four basic principles. A village or region may believe that a certain type of lemur may be the
ancestor of the clan. They may also believe that a lemur's spirit may get revenge. Alternatively, the animal may appear as a benefactor. Lemurs are also thought to impart their qualities, good or bad, onto human babies. In general,
fady extend beyond a sense of the forbidden, but can include events that bring bad luck. Primate species offered fresh and smoked in 2009 at a wildlife market by Liberia's
Cavally River included
chimpanzee (
Pan troglodytes),
Diana monkey (
Cercopithecus diana),
putty-nosed monkey (
C. nictitans),
lesser spot-nosed monkey (
C. petaurista),
Campbell's mona monkey (
C. campbelli),
sooty mangabey (
Cercocebus atys),
king colobus (
Colobus polykomos),
olive colobus (
Procolobus verus),
western red colobus (
P. badius). Between 1983 and 2002, the
Gabon populations of
western gorilla (
Gorilla gorilla) and
common chimpanzee (
Pan troglodytes) were estimated to have declined by 56%. This decline was primarily caused by the commercial hunting, which was facilitated by the extended infrastructure for
logging purposes. In the late 1990s, fresh and smoked
bonobo (
Pan paniscus) carcasses were observed in
Basankusu in the
Province of Équateur in the Congo Basin. Some people consider consumption of primates to be close to
human cannibalism due to monkeys and apes being close relatives of
human beings.
Kangaroo Kangaroo meat has long been a significant part of some
indigenous Australian diets. Kangaroo meat was legalised for human consumption in South Australia in 1980, though in other states it could only be sold as pet food until 1993. Kangaroos, along with most other native Australian animals, are protected under Australian law on a state and federal level, but licences to kill kangaroos can be acquired for hunting or culling purposes. Though kangaroo meat was once unpopular with modern Australians, it has become a lot more popular in recent years due to its reputation as a low-fat and low-emission meat, and can be found in most supermarkets.
Kangaroo meat is illegal in
California. The ban was first imposed in 1971; a moratorium was put in place in 2007, allowing the importation of the meat, but the ban was re-implemented in 2015. Kangaroo meat is also not considered biblically
kosher by
Jews or
Adventists. However, it is considered
halal according to Muslim dietary standards, because kangaroos are herbivorous.
Living animals , live fish served as sashimi. Islamic law, Judaic law (including
Noahide Law), and some laws of some Christians forbid any portion that is cut from a live animal (
Genesis 9:4, as interpreted in the Talmud,
Sanhedrin 59a). However, in the case of a
ben pekuah where a live offspring is removed from the mother's womb, these restrictions do not apply. Eating oysters raw,
ikizukuri, and other similar cases would be considered a violation of this in Jewish law. Examples of the eating of animals that are still alive include
eating live seafood, such as "raw
oyster on the half shell" and
ikizukuri (live fish).
Sashimi using live animals has been banned in some countries.
Offal , trotters and tripe on sale in an Istanbul market. , a traditional soup made with lamb's head (including brain, eyes and tongues) and hooves in
Iran.
Offal is the internal organs of butchered animals, and may refer to parts of the carcass such as the head and feet ("trotters") in addition to organ meats such as
sweetbreads and
kidney. Offal is a traditional part of many
European and
Asian cuisines, including such dishes as the
steak and kidney pie in the United Kingdom or
callos a la madrileña in Spain.
Haggis has been
Scotland's
national dish since the time of
Robert Burns. In northeast Brazil, there is a similar dish to haggis called buchada, made with goats' stomach. Except for heart,
tongue (beef),
liver (chicken, beef, or pork), and intestines used as natural
sausage casings, organ meats consumed in the U.S. tend to be regional or ethnic specialities; for example,
tripe as
menudo or
mondongo among
Latinos and Hispanos,
chitterlings in the
Southern United States,
scrapple on the Eastern Seaboard,
fried-brain sandwiches in the
Midwest, and beef
testicles called
Rocky Mountain oysters or "prairie oysters" in the west. In Argentina and other Spanish language countries, bull's testicles are served as
huevos de toro or 'bull's eggs'. In some regions, such as the
European Union,
brains and other organs which can transmit
bovine spongiform encephalopathy ("mad cow disease") and similar diseases have now been banned from the
food chain as
specified risk materials. Although eating the stomach of a goat, cow, sheep, or buffalo might be taboo, ancient
cheesemaking techniques utilize stomachs (which contain
rennet) for turning
milk into
cheese, a potentially taboo process. Newer techniques for making cheese include a biochemical process with bacterial enzymes similar to rennin and chymosin. This means that the
process by which cheese is made (and not the cheese itself) is a factor in determining whether it is forbidden or allowed by strict vegetarians.
Poppy seed Poppy seeds are used as condiments in many cultures, but the trace amounts of
morphine and
codeine present in the seeds can lead to a
false positive when administering a drug test. In
Singapore, poppy seeds are classified as "prohibited goods" by the
Central Narcotics Bureau (CNB).
Pigs/pork United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) data reports
pork as the most widely eaten meat in the world. Consumption of pigs is forbidden by Islam, Judaism and certain
Christian denominations, such as
Seventh-day Adventists. This prohibition is set out in the holy texts of the religions concerned, e.g.
Qur'an 2:173, 5:3, 6:145 and 16:115, Leviticus 11:7-8 and Deuteronomy 14:8. Pigs were also taboo in at least three other cultures of the ancient Middle East: the
Phoenicians,
Egyptians and
Babylonians. The original reason for this taboo is debated.
Maimonides seems to have thought the uncleanness of pigs was self-evident, but mentions with particular aversion their propensity to eat
feces. Another explanation offered for the taboo is that pigs are
omnivorous, not discerning between meat or vegetation in their natural dietary habits. The willingness to consume meat sets them apart from most other domesticated animals which are commonly eaten (cattle, sheep, goats, etc.) who would naturally eat only plants.
Mary Douglas has suggested that the reason for the taboo against the pig in Judaism is three-fold: (i) it transgresses the category of ungulates, because it has a split hoof but does not chew the cud, (ii) it eats carrion and (iii) it was eaten by non-Israelites. While
pork alternatives (for example, by
Impossible Foods) do not contain actual pork meat, some conservative religious groups, such as Islam, regard it as forbidden, similar to its meat-based counterpart as it is the said
haram or non-kosher product the pork alternative is trying to mimic and present. Lab-grown pork might also be considered haram or non-kosher.
Rabbit The book of Leviticus in the
Bible classifies the
rabbit as
unclean because it does not have a split hoof, even though it does chew and reingest partially digested material (equivalent to "chewing the cud" among ruminants). The consumption of rabbit is allowed in Sunni Islam, and is popular in several majority-Sunni countries (e.g. Egypt, where it is a traditional ingredient in
molokheyya), but it is forbidden in the Ja'fari jurisprudence of
Twelver Shia Islam.
Rats and mice In most Western cultures,
rats and
mice are considered either unclean
vermin or pets and thus unfit for human consumption, traditionally being seen as carriers of
plague. In
Ghana,
Thryonomys swinderianus locally referred to as "Akrantie", "Grasscutter" and (incorrectly) "
Bush rat" is a common food item. The proper common name for this rodent is "Greater Cane Rat", though actually it is not a rat at all and is a close relative of
porcupines and guinea pigs that inhabit
Africa, south of the
Saharan Desert. In 2003, the U.S. barred the import of this and other rodents from Africa because of an outbreak of at least nine human cases of
monkeypox, an illness never before seen in the
Western Hemisphere. Consumption of any sort of rodent, or material originating from rodents, is forbidden by Judaism and Islam forbid the consumption of
reptiles, such as
crocodiles and
snakes. In other cultures, foods such as
alligator are treasured as delicacies, and the animals are
raised commercially.
Vegetables, fruits and spices In certain versions of Jainism, Buddhism and Hinduism, consumption of vegetables of the
onion genus are restricted. Adherents believe that these excite damaging passions. Many Hindus discourage eating onion and garlic along with non-vegetarian food during festivals or
Hindu holy months of Shrawan, Puratassi and Kartik. However, shunning onion and garlic is not very popular among Hindus as compared to avoiding non-vegetarian foods, so many people do not follow this custom.
Kashmiri Brahmins forbid "strong flavored" foods. This encompasses garlic, onion, and spices such as
black pepper and
chili pepper, believing that pungent flavors on the tongue inflame the baser emotions.
Jains not only abstain from consumption of meat, but also do not eat
root vegetables (such as carrots, potatoes, radish, turnips, etc) as doing so kills the plant and they believe in
ahimsa. In the hierarchy of living entities, overwintering plants such as onions are ranked higher than food crops such as wheat and rice. The ability of onions to observe the changing of the seasons and bloom in spring is believed to be an additional 'sense' absent in lower plants. The amount of bad karma generated depends on the number of senses the creature possesses and so it is thought prudent to avoid eating onions. This also means that in some North Indian traditions, effectively all overwintering plants are considered taboo. Chinese
Buddhist cuisine traditionally prohibits
garlic,
Allium chinense,
asafoetida,
shallot, and
Allium victorialis (victory onion or mountain leek). In
Yazidism, the eating of
lettuce and
butter beans is taboo. The Muslim religious teacher and scholar, Falah Hassan Juma, links the sect's belief of evil found in lettuce to its long history of persecution by Muslims. Historical theory claims one ruthless potentate who controlled the city of
Mosul in the 13th century ordered an early Yazidi saint executed. The enthusiastic crowd then pelted the corpse with heads of lettuce. The
followers of Pythagoras were vegetarians, and "Pythagorean" at one time came to mean "vegetarian". However,
their creed prohibited the eating of beans. The reason is unclear: perhaps the
flatulence they cause, perhaps as protection from potential
favism, but most likely for
magico-religious reasons. One legend about Pythagoras' death states that he was killed after he chose not to run through a fava bean field to escape his enemies. Vegetables like
broccoli and
cauliflower, while not taboo, may be avoided by observant Jews and other religions due to the possibility of insects or worms hiding within the numerous crevices. Likewise, fruits such as
blackberries and
raspberries are recommended by kashrut agencies to be avoided as they cannot be cleaned thoroughly enough without destroying the fruit. The common
Egyptian dish mulukhiyah, a soup whose primary ingredient is
jute leaves (which did not have any other culinary purpose), was banned by the
Fatimid Caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah sometime during his reign (996-1021 CE). The ban applied to mulukhiyah, and also to other foodstuffs said to be eaten by Sunnis. While the ban was eventually lifted after the end of his reign, the
Druze, who hold Al-Hakim in high regard and give him quasi-divine authority, continue to respect the ban, and do not eat
mulukhiyah of any kind to this day.
Whales Sunni Islam permits Muslims to consume the flesh of whales that have died of natural causes as there is a famous Sunni hadith which cites Muhammad's approval of such. Whale meat is forbidden (haram) in Shia Islam as whales do not have scales. In much of the world, whale meat is not eaten due to the endangerment of whales but it is not traditionally forbidden. In some countries, such as the United Kingdom, it is illegal to import whale meat into the country. ==Prohibited drinks==