Ancient Punjab (518 BC – c. 500 AD)
Pukkusāti and Achaemenid Gandāra (518 BC – 326 BC) During the 6th century BCE, Gandhara was governed under the reign of King
Pukkusāti. According to early
Buddhist accounts, he had forged diplomatic ties with
Magadha and achieved victories over neighbouring kingdoms such as that of the realm of
Avanti. It is noted by
R. C. Majumdar that Pukkusāti would have been contemporary to the
Achamenid king
Cyrus the Great and according to the scholar Buddha Prakash, Pukkusāti might have acted as a bulwark against the expansion of the
Persian Achaemenid Empire into Gandhara. This hypothesis posits that the army which
Nearchus claimed Cyrus had lost in
Gedrosia had been defeated by Pukkusāti's Gāndhārī kingdom. It is unknown whether
Pukkusāti remained in power after the Achaemenid conquest as a Persian vassal or if he was replaced by a Persian
satrap, although
Buddhist sources claim that he renounced his throne and became a monk after becoming a disciple of the
Buddha. The annexation under Cyrus was limited to the Western sphere of Gandhāra as only during the reign of
Darius the Great did the region between the
Indus River and the
Jhelum River become annexed.
Alexander's invasion Frequent intertribal wars stimulated the growth of larger groupings ruled by chieftains and kings, who ruled local kingdoms known as
Mahajanapadas. He (alongside
Abisares) had a hostile relationship with the Kingdom of
Taxila which was ruled by his extended family. Porus refused to surrender and wandered about atop an elephant, until he was wounded and his force routed. Despite the apparently one-sided results, Alexander was impressed by Porus and chose to not depose him. Not only was his territory reinstated but also expanded with Alexander's forces annexing the territories of Glausaes, who ruled to the northeast of Porus' kingdom. After battle of Hydaspes, Alexander moved further southward during his campaign in Punjab which brought him in confrontation to the
Mallian tribe in the south Punjab. The Malli, together with nearby tribe of oxydrakai, gathered an army of 90,000 personnel to fight against an army of 50,000 Greeks. Alexander started his
Mallian campaign and advanced quickly than the expectations of the Mallians. Many of them were killed and rest fled to the Mallian capital,
Multan. Alexander besieged the city after arriving there some days later. During the siege of the city's citadel, Alexander reputedly leaped into the inner area of the citadel, where he killed the Mallians' leader. Alexander was wounded by an arrow that had penetrated his lung, leaving him severely injured. The Greek army thereafter started killing civilians and animals and whatever came in their way to take revenge of their injured leader. The Mallian army eventually surrendered, preventing further bloodshed.
Mauryan Empire (316 BC – 180 BC) During the
Mauryan era,
Punjab held a pivotal position as a core territory within the empire, with
Taxila serving as the provincial capital of the North West in
Gandhara.
Chanakya, a prominent figure in the establishment of the
Mauryan Empire, played a key role by adopting
Chandragupta Maurya, the initial Mauryan emperor. Under Chanakya's tutelage, Chandragupta received a comprehensive education at Taxila, encompassing various arts of the time, including military training, for a duration spanning 7–8 years.
Plutarch's accounts suggest that
Alexander the Great encountered a young
Chandragupta Maurya in the
Punjab region, possibly during his time at the university. Subsequent to Alexander's death, Chanakya and Chandragupta allied with
Trigarta king Parvataka to conquer the
Nanda Empire. This alliance resulted in the formation of a composite army, comprising Gandharans and
Kambojas, as documented in the
Mudrarakshasa. According to the
Taranatha, following the death of
Ashoka, the northwestern region seceded from the
Maurya Empire, and Virasena emerged as its king. Noteworthy for his diplomatic endeavors, Virasena's successor,
Subhagasena, maintained relations with the
Seleucid Greeks. This engagement is corroborated by
Polybius, who records an instance where
Antiochus III the Great descended into India to renew his ties with King Subhagasena in 206 BCE, subsequently receiving a substantial gift of 150 elephants from the monarch. The chief of the Mauryan military was also always a
Yaudheyan warrior according to the Bijaygadh Pillar inscription, which states that the Yaudheyas elected their own chief who also served as the general for the Mauryans. The Mauryan military was also made up vastly of men from the Punjab Janapadas.
Indo-Greek Kingdom (c. 180 BC – c. 20 BC) The Indo-Greek kingdom was founded when the
Graeco-Bactrian king
Demetrius (and later
Eucratides) invaded Punjab from Bactria in 200 BC, taking advantage of decline of Mauryans. The Greeks in the
Indian subcontinent were eventually divided from the
Graeco-Bactrians centered on Bactria (now the border between
Afghanistan and
Uzbekistan), and the Indo-Greeks in the present-day north-western Indian Subcontinent. Later,
Menander I Soter conquered Punjab and made
Sagala (present-day
Sialkot) the capital of the
Indo-Greek Kingdom. Menander is noted for having become a patron and convert to
Greco-Buddhism and he is widely regarded as the greatest of the Indo-Greek kings. The expression "Indo-Greek Kingdom" loosely describes a number of various dynastic polities, traditionally associated with a number of regional capitals like Taxila,
Pushkalavati and
Sagala. Other potential centers are only hinted at; for instance,
Ptolemy's
Geographia and the nomenclature of later kings suggest that a certain
Theophila in the south of the Indo-Greek sphere of influence may also have been a
satrapal or royal seat at one time. (155–130 BC) is the most famous Indo-Greek king mentioned in both Graeco-Roman and Indian sources. The capital of the Indo-Greeks during his reign was
Sagala in Punjab. During the two centuries of their rule, the Indo-Greek kings
combined the Greek and Indian languages and symbols, as seen on their coins, and blended Greek and Indian ideas, as seen in the archaeological remains. The diffusion of Indo-Greek culture had consequences which are still felt today, particularly through the influence of
Greco-Buddhist art. Following the death of Menander, most of his empire splintered and Indo-Greek influence was considerably reduced. Many new kingdoms and republics east of the Ravi River began to mint new coinage depicting military victories. The most prominent entities to form were the
Yaudheya Republic,
Arjunayanas, and the
Audumbaras. The Yaudheyas and Arjunayanas both are said to have won "victory by the sword" and the Audumbaras are said to of checked the Indo-Greek advance all the way up the upper bari doab, depicting a short Indo-Greek rule in Eastern Punjab. The
Datta dynasty and
Mitra dynasty soon followed in
Mathura. The Indo-Greeks ultimately disappeared as a political entity around 10 AD following the invasions of the
Indo-Scythians, although pockets of Greek populations probably remained for several centuries longer under the subsequent rule of the
Indo-Parthians and
Kushans.
Indo-Scythian Kingdom The
Indo-Scythians were descended from the
Sakas (
Scythians) who migrated from southern
Siberia to Punjab and
Arachosia from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century BCE. They displaced the earlier Indo-Greeks. The power of the Saka rulers started to decline in the 2nd century CE and soon they were replaced with Indo-Parthians by the mid 1st century AD. Some Aprachas are documented on the
Silver Reliquary discovered at
Sirkap, near Taxila, designating the title "Stratega," denoting a position equivalent to
Senapati, such as that of
Indravarma who was a general during the reign of the Apracharaja
Vijayamitra.
Indravarma is additionally noteworthy for receiving the above-mentioned
Silver Reliquary from the
Indo-Scythian monarch
Kharahostes, which he subsequently re-dedicated as a
Buddhist reliquary, indicating was a gift in exchange for tribute or assistance. According to another reliquary inscription Indravarma is noted as the Lord of Gandhara and general during the reign of Vijayamitra. According to Apracha chronology,
Indravarma was the son of Visnuvarma, an Aprachraja preceding
Vijayamitra.
Indravarmas son
Aspavarma is situated between 20 and 50 CE, during which numismatic evidence overlaps him with the
Indo-Scythian ruler
Azes II and
Gondophares of the
Indo-Parthians whilst also describing him as 'Stratega' or general of the Aprachas. In accordance with a Buddhist
Avadana,
Aspavarma and a
Saka noble, Jhadamitra, engaged in discussions concerning the establishment of accommodation for monks during the rainy seasons, displaying that he was a patron of
Buddhism. A reliquary inscription dedicated to 50 CE, by a woman named Ariasrava, describes that her donation was made during the reign of
Gondophares nephew,
Abdagases I, and
Aspavarma, describing the joint rule by the Aprachas and the Indo-parthians.
Indo-Parthian Kingdom (c. 30 AD – c. 50 AD) The Indo-Parthian Kingdom was founded by
Gondophares, and active from 19 CE to c. 226 CE. The city of Taxila is thought to have been a capital of the Indo-Parthians however this is where the Eastern boundary of the empire was limited to. The Greek philosopher
Apollonius of Tyana is related by
Philostratus in
Life of Apollonius of Tyana to have visited India, and specifically the city of Taxila around 46 AD. He describes constructions of the Greek type, probably referring to
Sirkap, and explains that the Indo-Parthian king of Taxila, named
Phraotes, received a Greek education at the court. The kingdom was conquered in the 1st century AD by the Kushan empire. During the dominion of the
Indo-Parthians,
Apracharaja Sasan, as described on numismatic evidence identifying him as the nephew of
Aspavarma, emerged as a figure of significance. Aspavarman, a preceding Apracharaja contemporaneous with
Gondophares, was succeeded by
Sasan, after having ascended from a subordinate governance role to a recognized position as one of Gondophares's successors. He assumed the position following
Abdagases I. The
Kushan ruler
Vima Takto is known through numismatic evidence to have overstruck the coins of
Sasan, whilst a numismatic hoard had found coins of Sasan together with smaller coins of
Kujula Kadphises It has also been discovered that Sasan overstruck the coins of
Nahapana of the
Western Satraps, this line of coinage dating between 40 and 78 CE. It was noted by
Philostratus and
Apollonius of Tyana upon their visit with
Phraotes in 46 AD, that during this time the Gandharans living between the
Kabul River and
Taxila had coinage of
Orichalcum and Black brass, and their houses appearing as single-story structures from the outside, but upon entering, underground rooms were also present. They describe
Taxila as being the same size as
Nineveh, being walled like a Greek city whilst also being shaped with Narrow roads, and further describe
Phraotes kingdom as containing the old territory of
Porus. Following an exchange with the king,
Phraotes is reported to have subsidized both barbarians and neighbouring states, to avert incursions into his kingdom.
Phraotes also recounts that his father, being the son of a king, had become an orphan from a young age. In accordance with Indian customs, two of his relatives assumed responsibility for his upbringing until they were killed by rebellious nobles during a ritualistic ceremony along the
Indus River. This event led to the usurpation of the throne, compelling Phraotes' father to seek refuge with the king situated beyond the
Hydaspes River, in modern-day
Punjab, a ruler esteemed greater than Phraotes' father. Moreover,
Phraotes states that his father received an education facilitated by the
Brahmins upon request to the king and married the daughter of the
Hydaspian king, whilst having one son who was Phraotes himself. Phraotes proceeds to narrate the opportune moment he seized to reclaim his ancestral kingdom, sparked by a rebellion of the citizens of
Taxila against the usurpers. With fervent support from the populace, Phraotes led a triumphant entry into the residence of the usurpers, whilst the citizens brandished torches, swords, and bows in a display of unified resistance.
Kushan Empire (c. 50 AD – c. 350 AD) plate, excavated in Rawalpindi, fourth century CE.
British Museum. About the middle of the 1st century CE, the
Kushan Empire expanded out of central Asia into the Punjab under the leadership of their first emperor,
Kujula Kadphises. They were descended from an Indo-European, Central Asian people called the
Yuezhi, a branch of which was known as the Kushans. By the time of his grandson,
Kanishka, the empire spread to encompass much of south Asia at least as far as
Saketa and
Sarnath near
Varanasi (Benares). By the 3rd century, their empire in Indian subcontinent was disintegrating and their last known great emperor was
Vasudeva I. Following territory losses in the west (
Bactria lost to the
Kushano-Sasanians), and in the east (loss of
Mathura to the
Gupta Empire), several "Little Kushans" are known, who ruled locally in the area of Punjab with their capital at Taxila:
Vasudeva II (270–300),
Mahi (300–305),
Shaka (305–335) and
Kipunada (335–350). They probably were vassals of the Gupta Empire, until the invasion of the
Kidarites destroyed the last remains of Kushan rule. In the early 3rd century BC, a union formed between the Punjab janapadas to expel the Kushans, resulting in a Kushan defeat and them being pushed all the way out of Eastern Punjab. Thus starting the fall of the empire and resulting in a century of peace in Punjab before the Gupta expansion.
Hunnic migrations (c. 350 AD – c. 500 AD) After decline of Kushan empire, the central Asian
Huns started migrating towards Punjab and other regions of Pakistan. First of them were the
Kidarites, who around 390 AD invaded Punjab and replaced remaining remnants of the Kushans. They seem to have retained the western part of the Gupta Empire, particularly central and western Punjab, until they were displaced by the invasion of the Alchon Huns at the end of the 5th century. from
Gandhara (5th century AD) features two Kidarite royal hunters as well as two Alchon hunters, suggesting a period of peaceful coexistence between the two entities. The
Alchon Huns were a nomadic people who invaded
South Asia during the 5th and 6th centuries AD. They were first mentioned as being located in
Paropamisus. Between 460 and 470 AD, the Alchons took over Gandhara and Western Punjab which also had remained under the control of the Kidarites, while the Gupta Empire remained further east. in
Taxila. It was destroyed during the
Hunnic invasions in the 5th century. The Alchons apparently undertook the mass destruction of Buddhist monasteries and
stupas at Taxila, a high center of learning, which never recovered from the destruction. ==Medieval Punjab (c. 500 AD – 1526 AD)==