Prehistory (pre–900) , one of the numerous
burial jars found on the cave system|alt=A burial jar with its lid decorated with two people on a boat There is
evidence of early
hominins living in what is now the Philippines as early as 709,000 years ago. Bones from
Callao Cave potentially represent an otherwise unknown species,
Homo luzonensis, who lived 50,000 to 67,000 years ago. The oldest
modern human remains on the islands are from the
Tabon Caves of
Palawan,
U/Th-dated to 47,000 ± 11–10,000 years ago.
Tabon Man is presumably a
Negrito, among the archipelago's earliest inhabitants descended from the first human migrations out of Africa via the coastal route along
southern Asia to the now-sunken landmasses of
Sundaland and
Sahul. The first Austronesians reached the Philippines from Taiwan around 2200 BC, settling the
Batanes Islands (where they built stone fortresses known as
ijangs) and northern
Luzon. Jade artifacts have been dated to 2000 BC, with
lingling-o jade items made in Luzon with raw materials from Taiwan. By 1000 BC, the inhabitants of the archipelago had developed into four societies:
hunter-gatherer tribes, warrior societies, highland
plutocracies, and port principalities. The Philippines prior to foreign colonization was believed to be egalitarian.
Early states (900–1565) The earliest known surviving written record in the Philippines is the 900 AD
Laguna Copperplate Inscription, which was written in
Old Malay using the early
Kawi script. By the 14th century, several large coastal settlements emerged as trading centers and became the focus of
societal changes. Some
polities had exchanges with other states throughout Asia. Trade with China began during the late
Tang dynasty, and expanded during the
Song dynasty. who would gradually settle and intermix in the Philippines. Indian cultural traits such as linguistic terms and religious practices
began to spread in the Philippines during the 14th century, via the Indianized Hindu
Majapahit Empire. By the 15th century, Islam was established in the
Sulu Archipelago and spread from there.
Tondo,
Namayan,
Pangasinan,
Caboloan,
Cebu,
Butuan,
Maguindanao,
Lanao,
Sulu, and
Ma-i. The early polities typically had a three-tier social structure: nobility, freemen, and dependent debtor-bondsmen. Among the nobility were leaders known as
datus, who were responsible for ruling autonomous groups (
barangays or dulohan). When the barangays banded together to form a larger settlement or a geographically looser alliance, their more-esteemed members would be recognized as a "
paramount datu", and would rule the community. Population density is thought to have been low during the 14th to 16th centuries Portuguese explorer
Ferdinand Magellan arrived in 1521, claimed the islands for Spain, and was killed by
Lapulapu's men in the
Battle of Mactan.
Spanish and American colonial rule (1565–1934) , 1847 Unification and colonization by the
Crown of Castile began when Spanish explorer
Miguel López de Legazpi arrived from
New Spain in 1565. Many
Filipinos were brought to New Spain
as slaves and forced crew, whereas many
Latin Americans were brought to the Philippines as soldiers and colonists. The Philippines hosts the only Latin American established districts in Asia.
Spanish Manila became the capital of the
Captaincy General of the Philippines and the
Spanish East Indies in 1571, Spanish territories in Asia and the Pacific. The Spanish invaded local states using the principle of
divide and conquer, Disparate barangays were deliberately
consolidated into towns, where
Catholic missionaries could more easily convert their inhabitants to
Christianity, which was initially
Syncretist.
Christianization by the
Spanish friars occurred mostly across the settled lowlands over the course of time. From 1565 to 1821, the Philippines was governed as a territory of the
Mexico City-based Viceroyalty of New Spain; it was then administered from
Madrid after the
Mexican War of Independence. Manila became the western hub of
trans-Pacific trade by
Manila galleons built in
Bicol and
Cavite. During its rule, Spain spent a significant sum of its treasury quelling
indigenous revolts including
Moro piracy, a 17th-century
war against the Dutch, 18th-century
British occupation of Manila, and conflict with Muslims in the south. Administration of the Philippines was considered a drain on the economy of New Spain, The colony survived on an annual subsidy from the Spanish crown
British forces occupied Manila from 1762 to 1764 during the
Seven Years' War. Spanish rule was restored with the
1763 Treaty of Paris. The
Spanish–Moro conflict lasted for several hundred years. Spain conquered portions of
Mindanao and
Jolo during the last quarter of the 19th century, and the Muslim
Moro in the
Sultanate of Sulu acknowledged Spanish sovereignty. s'' in
Madrid around 1890 Philippine ports opened to world trade during the 19th century, and Filipino society began to change. Social identity changed, with the term
Filipino encompassing all residents of the archipelago instead of solely referring to
Spaniards born in the Philippines. Revolutionary sentiment grew in 1872 after 200 locally recruited
colonial troops and laborers alongside
three activist Catholic priests were executed on
questionable grounds. This inspired the
Propaganda Movement, organized by
Marcelo H. del Pilar,
José Rizal,
Graciano López Jaena, and
Mariano Ponce, which advocated political reform in the Philippines. Rizal was executed on December 30, 1896, for rebellion, and his death radicalized many who had been loyal to Spain. Attempts at reform met with resistance;
Andrés Bonifacio founded the
Katipunan secret society, which sought independence from Spain through armed revolt, in 1892. Internal disputes led to the
Tejeros Convention, at which Bonifacio lost his position and
Emilio Aguinaldo was elected the new leader of the revolution. The 1897
Pact of Biak-na-Bato resulted in the
Hong Kong Junta government in exile. The
Spanish–American War began the following year, and reached the Philippines; Aguinaldo returned, resumed the revolution, and
declared independence from Spain on June 12, 1898. In December 1898, the islands were
ceded by Spain to the United States with
Puerto Rico and
Guam after the
Spanish–American War.
Spain ruled the Philippines for 333 years. The
First Philippine Republic was promulgated on January 21, 1899. Lack of recognition by the United States led to an
outbreak of hostilities that, after refusal by the U.S. on-scene military commander of a cease-fire proposal and a declaration of war by the nascent Republic, escalated into the
Philippine–American War. and his troops in Pampanga around 1898, during the
Philippine-American War The war resulted in the deaths of 250,000 to 1 million civilians, primarily due to famine and disease. Many Filipinos were transported by the Americans to
concentration camps, where thousands died. After the fall of the First Philippine Republic in 1902, an
American civilian government was established with the
Philippine Organic Act. American forces continued to secure and extend their control of the islands, suppressing an attempted
extension of the Philippine Republic, establishing control of interior mountainous areas which had resisted Spanish conquest, and encouraging large-scale resettlement of Christians in once-predominantly-Muslim Mindanao.
Commonwealth and World War II (1935–1946) Cultural developments in the Philippines strengthened a national identity, and
Tagalog began to take precedence over other local languages. with
Manuel Quezon president and
Sergio Osmeña vice president. Quezon's priorities were defence, social justice, inequality, economic diversification, and national character.
women's suffrage was introduced, The introduction of women's suffrage during the Commonwealth period (1935–1946) signifies a progressive step towards
gender equality in the Philippines. This gave women the right to vote and participate in the country's political processes. and
Sergio Osmeña (left) coming ashore during the
Battle of Leyte on October 20, 1944 The
Empire of Japan invaded the Philippines in December 1941
during World War II, and the
Second Philippine Republic was established as a
puppet state governed by
Jose P. Laurel. Beginning in 1942, the
Japanese occupation of the Philippines was
opposed by large-scale
underground guerrilla activity.
Atrocities and war crimes were committed during the war, including the
Bataan Death March and the
Manila massacre. The Philippine resistance and Allied troops
defeated the Japanese in 1944 and 1945. Over one million Filipinos were estimated to have died by the end of the war. On October 11, 1945, the Philippines became a
founding member of the
United Nations. On July 4, 1946, during the presidency of
Manuel Roxas, the country's independence was recognized by the United States with the
Treaty of Manila.
Independence (1946–present) Efforts at post-war reconstruction and ending the
Hukbalahap Rebellion succeeded during
Ramon Magsaysay's presidency, but sporadic communist insurgency continued to flare up long afterward. Under Magsaysay's successor,
Carlos P. Garcia, the government initiated a
Filipino First policy which promoted Filipino-owned businesses. and pursued
a claim on eastern
North Borneo. in front of the Congress Building in Manila, hosted by
Ferdinand Marcos on October 24, 1966 In 1965, Macapagal
lost the presidential election to
Ferdinand Marcos.
Early in his presidency, Marcos began infrastructure projects funded mostly by foreign loans; this improved the economy, and contributed to his
reelection in 1969. Near the end of his last constitutionally-permitted term, Marcos
declared martial law on September 21, 1972 using the specter of communism and began to
rule by decree; the period was characterized by
political repression,
censorship, and
human rights violations.
Monopolies controlled by
Marcos's cronies were established in key industries, including
logging and broadcasting; With his wife,
Imelda, Marcos was accused of corruption and
embezzling billions of dollars of public funds. Marcos's heavy borrowing
early in his presidency resulted in
economic crashes, exacerbated by an
early 1980s recession where the economy contracted by 7.3 percent annually in 1984 and 1985. On August 21, 1983, opposition leader
Benigno Aquino Jr. (Marcos's chief rival) was
assassinated on the tarmac at
Manila International Airport. Marcos called a snap
presidential election in 1986 which proclaimed him the winner, but the results were widely regarded as fraudulent. The resulting protests led to the
People Power Revolution, which forced Marcos and his allies to flee to
Hawaii. Aquino's widow,
Corazon, was installed as president The return of democracy and government reforms which began in 1986 were hampered by
national debt, government corruption, and
coup attempts. and military conflict with
Moro separatists persisted; the administration also faced a series of disasters, including the eruption of
Mount Pinatubo in June 1991. Aquino was succeeded by
Fidel V. Ramos, who
liberalized the national economy with
privatization and
deregulation. Ramos's economic gains were overshadowed by the onset of the
1997 Asian financial crisis. His successor,
Joseph Estrada, prioritized public housing but faced corruption allegations which led to his overthrow by the
2001 EDSA Revolution and the succession of Vice President
Gloria Macapagal Arroyo on January 20, 2001. Arroyo's
nine-year administration was marked by economic growth, including
electoral fraud allegations during the
2004 presidential election. Economic growth continued during
Benigno Aquino III's administration, which advocated good governance and transparency. Aquino III signed
a peace agreement with the
Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) resulting in the
Bangsamoro Organic Law establishing an autonomous
Bangsamoro region, but a
shootout with MILF rebels in Mamasapano delayed passage of the law. Growing public frustration with post-
EDSA governance led to the
2016 election of populist
Rodrigo Duterte, whose
presidency saw the decline of
liberalism in the country albeit largely retaining liberal economic policies. the enactment of the Bangsamoro Organic Law; an intensified crackdown on crime and communist insurgencies; and
an anti-drug campaign that reduced drug proliferation but that has also led to
extrajudicial killings. In early 2020, the
COVID-19 pandemic reached the Philippines, necessitating
nationwide lockdowns that caused a brief but severe
economic recession. Under a promise of continuing Duterte's policies, Marcos's son,
Bongbong Marcos, ran with Duterte's daughter,
Sara, and won the
2022 election. Marcos's renewal of a pro-US foreign policy, however, has been viewed as a reversal of Duterte's cordiality with China, and
territorial disputes in the South China Sea have since escalated. The Marcos administration also
arrested his predecessor Duterte, who was sent to the
International Criminal Court in
The Netherlands for trial of
crimes against humanity, which led to the collapse of the Marcos-Duterte alliance. Later on, a series of
corruption, mismanagement and irregularities in government-funded flood management projects occurred under his administration, resulting in
numerous protests nationwide. The country suffered an
energy crisis as a result of the
conflict in Middle East. == Geography ==