Old Frisian

Old Frisian was a West Germanic language, which is a part of the larger Germanic language family. It is classified as an Ingvaeonic language along with Old English and Old Saxon. Periodization The periods of the Frisian languages are traditionally divided into Pre–Old Frisian (before 1275), Old Frisian (1275–1550), Middle Frisian (1550–1800), and modern Frisian (1800–present), though these dates vary among scholars. Trask, for example, puts the end of the Old Frisian period around 1600, while suggests it ends about a hundred years earlier. Some scholars, such as , have argued that there is no reason to demarcate them this way and that these periods are more in line with literary periods than linguistic change. Despite its name, Old Frisian was contemporary with Middle Dutch, Middle English, and both Middle High and Middle Low German, though there is some overlap with Old Norse. In general, Old Frisian manuscripts are notably conservative despite their later date. According to De Haan, what is referred to as "Old Frisian" should really be called "Middle Frisian" and what is called "Middle Frisian" should be referred to as "Early Modern Frisian". De Haan argues that the current nomenclature is misleading and confusing because it incorrectly suggests that Old Frisian is contemporary with other "Old" Germanic languages such as Old English and Old Saxon. The British Old English scholar Alistair Campbell expressed similar views, arguing that the Frisian spoken between the 14th and 16th centuries is better described as "Middle Frisian". In some contexts, the term "Old Frisian" may also refer to what is called either "Pre–Old Frisian" or "Proto-Frisian", or both the Pre–Old Frisian and Old Frisian periods collectively. Frederik Hartmann, for example, cites Rolf Bremmer's analysis of Pre–Old Frisian sound changes but refers to the language as "Old Frisian". Complicating the matter further, Old Frisian legal scholars typically view The Seventeen Statutes () as the first Old Frisian law text, which is traditionally considered to be an early 11th-century text and at the very latest probably an early 13th-century one. Bremmer argues that the origins of the "Old" terminology are based on the perceived higher esteem scholars who study older historical periods are held in, stating that the view of those attempting to give it the "Old" appellation hope "its antiquity will add to its prestige" while acknowledging that the nomenclature is functionally "arbitrary". Ultimately, Bremmer sides with the application of "Middle" to this period except for the two Rüstring codices – dated to and 1327, respectively – based on vowel quality in unstressed syllables, itself based on agreed-upon criteria going back to the work of Jacob Grimm. In general, Old West Frisian manuscripts are attested more recently as compared to Old East Frisian ones; while most Old West Frisian texts are dated to around 1450 to 1525, their Old East Frisian counterparts are typically dated to between 1300 and 1450. In part for this reason, the Old Frisian period is sometimes further divided into "Classical Frisian" and "Post-Classical Frisian", demarcating Old West and Old East Frisian, respectively, as the characteristics differentiating them may be more based on timing than location. In corpora from around the region between the Lauwers and the Ems, for example, some verbal formations – especially those in the Fivelgo Manuscript – are more reminiscent of those traditionally associated with Old West Frisian despite being grouped as clear members of the traditional Old East Frisian dialect group. However, these overlaps may have been the result of several reference documents being shared across the Frisian territories by different scribes and there is some question as to whether the legal documents of these codices were necessarily discovered in the area in which they had jurisdiction. Under this approach, the Classical Frisian period occurred between the 12th and 14th centuries, and is defined by a shared legal tradition on both sides of the Lauwers, while the Post-Classical period is characterized by the erosion of case markers, the complete collapse of the dative–accusative distinction in pronouns, and the growing influence of Dutch in Old West Frisian and Low German in Old East Frisian. Dialects Old Frisian was composed of several dialects. The main division was between Old West Frisian and Old East Frisian, based on their position in relation to the Lauwers river. This divide predated the Old Frisian period as there is evidence that it was split on this basis as early as the 8th century. The linguistic phylogeny – that is, the relation of these varieties to each other through linguistic descent – is described below: |label3= |3=Insular North Frisian }} }} This division was not solely linguistic; the divide was also jurisdictional and ecclesiastical. The diocesan divisions are nearly identical to the dialectal divisions. Old West Frisian, largely coterminous with the Diocese of Utrecht, was divided into two dialects: the southwestern dialect in and around Westergoa and the northeastern dialect in and around Eastergoa. These dialects later developed into a continuum after the sea arm which divided them began to be reclaimed around 1100. Old East Frisian was divided twice as well: Old Weser Frisian in the Diocese of Bremen and Old in the Diocese of Münster. During the period of Old Frisian, the dialect which later became North Frisian is not attested. Stiles states that both varieties of North Frisian – Insular and Mainland – are ultimately descended from an Eastern Frisian ancestor. The descendants of Old Weser Frisian – also known as Riustring Old East Frisian – are Wangerooge, Wursten, and Harlingerland Frisian, all of which are now extinct. Old Weser Frisian is attested in two full manuscripts, known as the Riustring Codices, and two fragments. Whether the Old Weser Frisian attested in these documents is the direct ancestor of the Wangerooge or Wursten variants or rather an extremely close relative is a matter of some debate; Stiles argues that the document's language is closely related to the two but distinct from them, while Bremmer categorizes them as direct descendants. Old Ems Frisian is the ancestor of the now-extinct Emsingo, Brokmerland, and dialects, as well as the still-extant Saterland Frisian, its only living descendant. Old West Frisian later developed into the modern West Frisian language. Unlike their Mainland counterparts, the Insular North Frisian languages are not descended from Old Frisian. Instead, they share a common ancestor in Pre–Old Frisian, diverging around the late 7th or early 8th centuries. Relationship with English in Europe; hatched areas indicate where multilingualism is common Traditionally, English and the Frisian languages were widely regarded as closer to each other than to any other Germanic language. The German linguist Theodor Siebs is commonly associated with popularizing this affinity and is credited with coining the term "Anglo-Frisian languages" in his 1889 dissertation entitled ('On the History of the Anglo-Frisian Languages'). The English philologist Henry Sweet, however, is considered the "father of the Anglo-Frisian hypothesis", articulating the concept as early as 1876. Observations about the close relationship are much older than the 19th century, however; it is likely that Anglo-Saxon missionaries during the 7th and 8th centuries saw the two languages as closely related. Datings proposed for a common ancestor of the Anglo-Frisian languages estimate that it was probably fully formed by the 4th or 5th century, diverging shortly thereafter. This phylogenetic view of English and Frisian is no longer widely accepted. Linguists argue that – while English, Frisian, and Low German are correctly believed to have a common Ingvaeonic ancestorthere is no reason to believe that English and Frisian shared a uniquely close genetic relationship thereafter. Some shared linguistic changes do overlap in ways unique to these languages, often at similar times, but these changes do not match in terms of their relative chronology; in other words, these common changes do not appear to have occurred at the same time or in the same order. Examples include Old Frisian's vowel breaking and vowel backing processes, which closely resemble Old English's and Old Norse's, but developed independently from them. Instead, some linguists argue that the Ingvaeonic precursor was likely a broad dialect continuum which saw the dialects which later became English and Frisian develop similarly but not as one language. This continuum was spoken across the continental coast of the North Sea prior to the Migration Period, evolving into distinct languages around the turn of the 5th century. The continuum model is sometimes broadened to include Old Low Franconian as well. Under this model, the two language groups did experience a series of changes particular to the area along the North Sea between about 450 and 650, which influenced both languages as well as Dutch, Flemish, and probably northern varieties of Low German. The English and the Frisians were long associated with each other. Frisians are traditionally believed to have comprised a fairly significant portion of the Germanic invaders of Britain during the Anglo-Saxon period. While no major district of England is named after the Frisians, there is data from the local toponymy – that is, the placename origins – to support a significant Frisian settlement, including Friston and Frisby. Genetic evidence has suggested that following the Roman-era exodus of the Frisii, the people who later inhabited the area were genetically indistinguishable from the 5th-century Angles who colonized what is now England. Frisian and English domination of maritime trade in the North Sea also played a role in their relationship; London was a hub for Frisian slave-traders and York had a special quarter for housing Frisian merchants. Although the Anglo-Saxons also invaded and subjugated the Frisians during the 5th century, this is not considered to be a cause for the linguistic similarities. Other scholars, however, have persisted in supporting the Anglo-Frisian language family as a legitimate phylogenetic category, split into two general outlooks on the relationship. The first is the traditional model, which contends that the relationship is that the two languages diverged from a common Proto-Anglo-Frisian ancestor and thus are sister languages. The other is called the convergence hypothesis, which regards Ingvaeonic as the last common ancestor, but holds that early forms of English and Frisian became increasingly intertwined and influenced by each other to form the striking resemblance each shares to the other. Critics dismiss the convergence approach as unrealistic, pointing to the difficulty of dispersing those kinds of linguistic developments across the maritime divide. Hans F. Nielsen placed Old Saxon and Old Frisian closer on his phylogenetic tree, with Old English splitting off in the 5th century not long after Old High German split from the rest of the West Germanic languages. ==History==

Speakers showing Frisians offering gifts to the cathedral's patron|alt=A black-and-white drawing of four groups of people flanking a man with a halo and a sword; the four groups comprise women and men who are bringing offerings of livestock and agriculture; one man in each group is armed with a spear; above the piece is an inscription in Latin During the early Middle Ages, when Pre–Old Frisian was spoken, the Frisians dominated North Sea trade. Contemporary non-Frisian documents refer to the North Sea as the Frisian Sea () and the term Frisian was used in Dorestad to mean any merchant, not necessarily an ethnic Frisian. By the early 7th century, the Frisians had expanded from the near modern-day Bruges to the Weser estuary. During the latter half of the century, the first wave of Frisians began colonizing the previously uninhabited islands off the southwestern coast of modern-day Denmark, occupying Amrum, Föhr, Sylt, and Heligoland; the linguistic descendants of this migration are the Insular North Frisian speakers, who speak Öömrang, Fering, Söl'ring, and Halunder Frisian varieties, respectively. By the end of the century, the Frisians also controlled the coastal regions from the Scheldt to the Rhine. During the following period, Christianity was introduced to the region by the Anglo-Saxon bishop Willibrord and Frisia was subjugated by the Franks under the leadership of Charles Martel. Charles Martel's incursion into Frisia is probably what led to the departure of the Insular North Frisians from Frisia to the uninhabited islands off the coast of southern Denmark. in the modern-day Netherlands During the latter part of the 13th centurywhen Old Frisian was spokenthe Frisians were divided by the Lauwers river. Those to the west of it were partially conquered by the County of Holland during its long-standing campaigns of conquest, but they were ultimately able to repel Holland's forces, killing its count at the Battle of Warns in 1345. The political situation east of the river is largely obscure during this period, but it appears that they were under regular assault from Saxon forces though they were able to keep them at bay. This period is also marked by a loose confederation between the Frisian territories, the Upstalsboom League, which united the Seven Sealands of Frisia and produced legal documents from around 1300, though translations of its original Latin texts only appear in Old West Frisian. However, an internal rift among the Frisian confederacy increased tensions and ultimately led to the end of the Frisian freedom period in 1498, with the ascension of Albert III of Saxony as . The following centuries were marked by civil wars including the Guelders Wars, which saw more Frisian casualties than any war thereafter. Corpus Outside of the two dozen surviving Pre–Old Frisian runic inscriptions – all of which are dated to around the 5th through 10th centuries – and some individual words captured in the marginalia of Latin texts, the earliest Frisian-language text to survive to the modern period is an interlinear gloss of the Psalms found in 2015, which has been dated to around 1100. The first full manuscripts are the First Brokmer Codex, written sometime between 1276 and 1300, and the First Riustring Codex, written around 1300. These documents are known to be copies and it is uncertain when, where, or by whom the original texts were written, though it is likely that they were originally composed shortly after 1225. Legal texts dominate the surviving corpus of Old Frisian documents; all but one of the Frisian-language documents east of the Lauwers are legal documents. To the west, textual diversity is somewhat wider. Western documents include over a thousand charters and administrative documents, though poetry and historiographies have survived alongside them as well as several religious works and a few administrative texts. Most of the existing corpora were compiled into seventeen legal codices, one being an incunable, which contain several distinct legal texts. Many of the codices are not fully in Old Frisian; the ('Parisian Codex'), for example, contains Middle Low German and Latin supplements, and the ('Municipal Law of the Frisians') ends with a Middle Dutch legal text. Taken together, the body of surviving Old Frisian documents is remarkably uniform across time and space, and formed an early standard language for Frisians. In general, the legal texts from the High Middle Ages emphasize the role of upholding the social customs and traditions of the peasantry, whereas the texts of the late Middle Ages were shaped much more by the growing influence of Roman law and the canon law of the Catholic Church. Later texts focus heavily on the introduction of an emerging educated class to the legal process as the capacity for urban and regional administration grew. The vast majority of Old Frisian documents, however, have not survived to the modern day and much of what had been preserved was destroyed during the Reformation, especially as monastic orders around the Netherlands were dissolved. Documentation for Old Frisian is also attested in chronicles and apocrypha, most of which are politically charged and considered inaccurate; the political situation of the Frisians during this period led to ideological influences on the Old Frisian body of literature. For example, the aforementioned incunable, though containing some legal content such as the Statutes of Upstalsboom, began with an ideologically-driven introduction and had several documents which likely served to promote the Frisian self-governing, non-feudal social order of the period. Later works emphasize the Frisian legal tradition, especially its sources and purported unbroken line from generations past. Decline and evolution During Latin's descent as the chosen language of legal texts like charters, Frisian also began its linguistic decline. Low German began to displace it, either because it was of higher prestige or more widely understood. However, Old Frisian documents were still widely translated into Low German from the late 15th century until the turn of the 17th century and modern Low German demonstrates traces of Old Frisian influence, including in placenames, personal names, vocabulary, and syntax. Between the Lauwers and the Ems, no original Frisian texts occur in the record after around 1450 and the last known public document composed in Old Frisian dates to 1547 following the introduction of Dutch as the language of administration by the representatives of the Duchy of Saxony during the 16th century. By 1550, the language is considered to have developed into Middle Frisian, mostly as a vernacular in rural areas, or been superseded by , a Frisian–Dutch mixed language used primarily in cities by Frisians who could not speak Dutch. Documents produced after 1550 show marked differences in orthography and grammar, suggesting that during the first half of the 16th century, the Old Frisian documents being produced were already quite archaic. During the emerging Modern Frisian period in the 19th century, Old Frisian documents were once again being consulted as inspiration for orthographic standards. Around the middle of the century, developed an orthography based largely on the conventions of Old Frisian documents. A variant of it vied to become the written standard for West Frisian, but lost out to an orthography developed by the Brothers Halbertsma, which was based largely on the work of the Middle Frisian poet Gysbert Japicx. ==Vocabulary==

Native vocabulary Although the vast majority of Old Frisian vocabulary can be traced directly to Proto-Germanic, many terms were created through compounding or affixation, and were borrowed from other languages. Only a few adverb-forming suffixes are attested; adverbs could otherwise be formed using either the genitive or dative case. Nouns were regularly combined without any use of genitive forms, such as in ('fishing weir'), though it became increasingly common to mark the first element with a linking genitive form like , such as in ('summer night'), in later forms of the language. Adjectives were also compounded with nouns to form other adjectives, such as ('easy to milk', ). Although relatively rare, kennings – a kind of Germanic compound with a metaphorical meaning – are attested in some Old Frisian documents. For example, criminal regulations regarding the protection of children and pregnant women use the term ('fortress of the bones') to reference the womb. Among expressive vocabulary, more words for anger are attested than any other emotion. Loanwords Loanwords in Old Frisian comprised inherited borrowings from earlier languages – such as ('kingdom, realm') borrowed from a Celtic language during either the Proto-Germanic or Proto–West Germanic periods – and borrowings during the Old Frisian period. Old Frisian borrowed a number of Latin terms from all three periods and it is often difficult to pinpoint precisely when the Latin loan entered the language. Old Frisian also appears to have borrowed terms from the Slavic languages through Low German, including the term ('fur') which was used as money in Rüstringen (compare the Serbo-Croatian term ). Terms from Old French were also borrowed, probably through one or more intermediaries. Examples include ('payment') and ('female lover, concubine'). Old Frisian also borrowed a number of abstract suffixes from French. Old Saxon and Middle Low German also contributed significantly to Old Frisian vocabulary. By the end of the 15th century, Middle Low German had emerged as the language of trade in the North Sea, displacing Old Frisian dialects spoken east of the Lauwers. Terms borrowed include ('wheel'; from Old Saxon ) and ('brother-in-law'). Similarly, Old Saxon and Middle Low German served as an intermediary for Old and Middle High German borrowings; these include terms like ('emperor'; from Old High German ) and ('young woman, virgin'). Effects of Christianization After the Christianization of the Frisians around the 8th century, the language experienced an influx of Latin and its Greek loans, such as ('devil'; from Latin ), ('to write'; from Latin , displacing the native term ), and ('blessing'; from Latin 'sign of the cross'). Because the Anglo-Saxons converted the Frisians to Christianity, it is probable that Old English terms began to enter the language around this time, though the close relationship between the two languages makes distinguishing native words from Old English borrowings extremely difficult. Possible borrowings may include ('to yearn'; from Old English , 'to comment on') and ('to delete'; from Old English , 'to blot out, to erase'), though these terms may have been borrowed from Old English to missionary centers in other Germanic-speaking areas and then into Old Frisian. Calques were common in Old Frisian, especially for Latin terms adopted during the Christianization of the Frisians, such as ('church', ; Latin ) and ('almighty'; Latin ). Other loan translations include the days of the week and some terms associated with the military or leadership roles, such as ('leader, chieftain'; Latin ) and ('highroad, military road'; Latin ). Alternations between native Old Frisian words and Latin loans bled into legal texts as well, often as glosses or definitions. Examples include in the , where the terms and both are glossed as Latin ('judge, magistrate') even though the duties in Frisian society were not equivalent. ==Phonology==

Old Frisian phonology has been reconstructed by analyzing the existing corpora and the language's modern descendants. In general, Old Frisian scribes used a largely phonemic orthography, where each letter signifies a distinct phoneme. With limited exceptions, stress fell on the stem, the base form of the word to which affixes may be added, in Old Frisian. Vowels No distinction was made orthographically in early Old Frisian to provide for vowel length, though in later forms of the language an or was placed after the vowel to indicate a long vowel, as in (, ). The vowel may have been a marginal phoneme, where it is found in one extant manuscript as a reflex of the same Proto–West Germanic phoneme, though inclusion of is based on very little evidence. The language had two diphthongs: and , the latter of which was interchangeable with . The long vowel in is assumed from attestations in Old West Frisian, but it is unclear if it was long in earlier forms of the language, as the vowel length is unclear in the older Old East Frisian manuscripts. In later Old West Frisian, the traditional developed into , usually written as . While there were rising diphthong short forms in , no short is attested. Other marginal diphthongs existed too. For example, was common in loanwords, as in ('emperor') from Old High German, though it existed in some native terms such as . Later developments include , as in ('flail'). Two consecutive vowels did not always form a diphthong. For example, ('enemy') has a syllable break between the first vowel and the second. Consonants Gemination, or the long pronunciation of consonants, was possible for most consonants in word-medial position, though semivowels (i.e., and ), voiced allophones of voiceless fricatives typically found between vowels (i.e., , , , and ), and the alveolar affricates are exceptions. Dirk Boutkan argues that is an exception as well, but Bremmer includes it. In earlier orthographies, geminate consonants were consistently written with duplicated consonants unless they were found in word-final position; later, the duplication only signified that the previous vowel was short. The phoneme was typically pronounced at the beginning of a syllable as if the syllable was stressed and the phoneme occurred before a vowel, , , or . It is possible that , , or clusters were realized as the voiceless allophones , , or , respectively, given that the orthography sometimes swaps them; for example, and are both attested for the same sequence. If true, Old Frisian is unique in its preservation of this voiceless quality among other contemporary Germanic languages. In all other cases, is believed to have been pronounced. The phoneme was devoiced and spirantized in word-final position; in other words, it became as well. Orthographic conventions The dental fricatives and were both written as , irrespective of voicing; the phoneme was sometimes written as , but no pronunciation change is thought to have occurred, however. Similarly, the cluster is sometimes written as , but it was still likely pronounced as . Though was often pronounced , could represent either or , though is vastly less common except in loans from Medieval Latin, where it could also represent , especially word-initially or before . Instead, almost always represents either or its geminate equivalent. The insertion of was probably imported from orthographic conventions common among Middle Low German scribes, though it is relatively rare and found primarily in Latin loans. The digraph was often used to represent , the fricative allophone of or voiced allophone of , but could represent as well. The semivowel could be variously represented as , , , or , though the latter only occurred before high vowels. Both and could be used unetymologically to mark syllable boundaries; typically used for , as in (genitive singular of 'way') instead of the also attested , while was silent, as in ('Israeli'). The digraph was sometimes used for the sequence ; both and ('animal'), both pronounced are attested in the corpora. The sound could be represented with either or . In the , a document found west of the Lauwers, the language shows signs of voicing in word-initial fricatives like that found in Middle and Modern Dutch, though this does not persist in Modern West Frisian. Dialectal variation Old Frisian phonology was not uniform. For example, around the year 1200, the Proto–West Germanic phoneme became in word-medial and word-final positions in several Old Frisian dialects. This change did not affect Old Weser Frisian or North Frisian and forms like existed beside in different dialects during the same period. Old Weser Frisian Short vowels in unstressed final syllables in Old Weser Frisian were in complementary distribution; this distribution is called "vowel balance". When the preceding vowel is short and the introduction of vowel balance would cause the additional short vowel to be in an open syllable, or appear, such as in ('to God') or ('ships'). If the preceding vowel was long or a diphthong, or if the stem vowel was separated by another syllable, the word ended with the vowels or , such as in ('people'). This regular distribution of word-final vowels has allowed linguists to differentiate between long and short vowels in Old Frisian documents where vowel length is not marked. For example, the word (dative singular of 'hoof'), with a long first vowel, could be distinguished from its short vowel counterpart (dative singular of 'court, courtyard'). The consequences of vowel balance are reflected in two of the descendant dialects, Wangerooge and Wursten. Old Weser Frisian also raised to before (, 'earth') and raised and to through i-mutation (, 'king'). However, was lowered to and to in open syllables if the following syllable contains . This last process is known as the Rüstring a-mutation. Following fronting and the palatalization of and , which typically became , Old Weser Frisian exhibits , such as in ('day') instead of and ('brain') instead of . Proto-Germanic also became . Old Ems Frisian Old Ems Frisian diphthongized to before a voiced alveolar consonant including resonants, as in ('bride', also 'broad'). In unstressed syllables, the suffix inserted between the vowel and the final consonant, such as in ('weapon') instead of . In later forms of the dialect, became lengthened after some consonant clusters; then had a tendency to become rounded to () irrespective of if it had been lengthened by the consonant cluster lengthening. This gave rise to forms such as ('all') instead of , though forms like ('so') – against the non-Ems form – show rounding but not in both circumstances. Old West Frisian Orthographic conventions used in Old West Frisian help to make the phonological structure much clearer than those of the Old East Frisian dialects. Vowel length is frequently marked, either with the addition of an after the long vowel, as in ('book'), or the duplication of the long vowel, as in ('house') or ('woman'). Orthographic duplication of long was sometimes and sometimes , as in . Similarly, a long may sometimes be represented as , as in ('his'), or , as in ('wergeld'). In some instances, or may be used as a length modifier as well, as in ('sign') or ('known, public'). Old West Frisian demonstrates rounding of before nasal consonants; this was later constrained to the northeastern dialect before or , as the southwestern dialect restored it to . When occurred between vowels, it became , as in instead of for the dative singular of 'court'; this also sometimes led to the collapse of the two vowel structure, causing a diphthong to occur, as in ('head'; from earlier inherited from ). This sound change is also found in later forms of the Old East Frisian dialects. Old West Frisian also exhibits several vowel breaking processes. One is a process called "Jorwert breaking" where long front vowels followed by are converted into rising diphthongs. This means that , , and were converted into , , and , respectively. Sometimes the is deleted if it follows an . Before consonant clusters beginning with a liquid consonant, is typically raised to . In another process, called "late Old West Frisian breaking", consonant clusters where preceded , , , or , the preceding was lengthened, diphthongized, and stress shifted to the second syllable. This process can be seen in examples such as lengthening to before breaking into ; stress originally fell on the first syllable, then shifted to the final syllable. Before the cluster , diphthongizes to . In the sequence , both elements merge into . The diphthong raised to , pronounced as . The voiceless dental fricative became word-initially and the voiced dental fricative, also represented as became word-initially and -medially. Between vowels, – including those previously dental fricatives – are elided, as in ('to cut'; from earlier ). Word-final was devoiced and was raised to before nasal consonants. ==Morphology==

and Old Frisian law texts.|alt=A manuscript written in blackletter font; the incipit begins with an ornate letter T which is hastily colored in Old Frisian distinguished between three grammatical genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter. Case appears to have been somewhat variable; while nominative, accusative, genitive, and dative cases are abundant, the instrumental case was preserved in some fossilized phrases and a locative case has been documented in a few attestations. Only two grammatical numbers are attested in Old Frisian (singular and plural), though a dual number is attested in both Insular and Mainland forms of North Frisian, becoming obsolete during the early 20th century. Old Frisian likely had a dual number, but the legal context in which most attestations occur did not give cause for the use of the dual. Old Frisian did not have reflexive pronouns for most of its history; although the inherited reflexive is attested, it displaced the expected neuter genitive singular pronoun and the language instead used the accusative case to express the reflexive grammatical function. Pronouns Pronouns in Old Frisian were only attested in four cases: nominative, accusative, genitive, and dative. Like other Ingvaeonic languages such as Old English and Old Saxon, there is no distinction between the accusative and dative, which is contrasted with other West Germanic languages like Old High German. Old West Frisian innovated the second-person plural form , sometimes rendered as , a combined form composed of and (literally 'you men'). This form did not decline for case and remained the polite form of address. Old Frisian had cliticized pronouns which were attached to the end of words; their use has made translation more difficult since they are not marked as distinct from other homonymic suffixes. Possessive pronouns declined like strong adjectives and interrogative pronouns did not decline for grammatical gender. The interrogative pronoun ('what') is sometimes marked for number, but only in the accusative and dative forms. The interrogative pronoun ('who') was typically pronounced with a short vowel, but pronounced long utterance-finally. Pronominal forms were sometimes used to recapitulate nouns and other pronouns in order to establish clarity. Examples include: {{Interlinear|number=(a) Nouns Old Frisian nouns are classified into three archetypes. Type I are weak/consonant-stemmed nouns, type II are strong/vowel-stemmed nouns, and type III is a catch-all category which mainly comprises other kinds of consonant-stemmed nouns of which the Indo-European reflex had the case marked immediately to the root word. Masculine words ending in and feminine or neuter words ending in are classed in type I, though there are only two neuter words in this type: ('ear') and ('eye'). Type II comprises a wide variety of strong masculine nouns and predominately abstract feminine nouns. The neuter suffix or also governs the type II paradigm, though this is attested as a feminine suffix as well. Below is an example of an n-stem declension, a kind of type I declension pattern: Heavy syllables in the stem – that is, stems with either a long vowel or a word-final consonant – have an influence on the pattern of type II declensions. Traditionally ending in , heavy a-stems lose the pluralizing suffix, making the nominative and accusative forms of the plural identical to the singular. Below are examples of a-stem declensions within the type II paradigm: Certain words have irregular plurals due to phonological processes, such as ('day') and ('days') which developed based on vowel fronting and velar palatalization in the former but not in the latter. These irregularities do not affect its paradigm classification. All nouns in the ō-stem declension were feminine. The nominative singular in these terms comes from an originally accusative form. Below is an example of the ō-stem paradigm: Verbs Verbs in Old Frisian comprised four types: strong, weak, preterite-present, and anomalous. With few exceptions, the only productive verb declension was the weak paradigm. Some paradigm leveling to weak declensions occurred among strong verbs in later forms of the language. The anomalous class of verbs are a composite class comprising suppletive verbs, verbs without clear preterite forms, and verbs with defective or missing declension forms. In general, verbs tended to end in either or with later forms reduced to or , respectively. Noteworthy exceptions include and in Old West Frisian; this word-final became more widespread in monosyllabic verbs in later forms of that dialect, such as in ('to do') and ('to see'). Infinitive forms used the lengthened suffix after the word – used to express purpose – such as in the phrase ('to travel'). In Old Weser Frisian and Old Ems Frisian, present participles and gerunds had identical forms. Like modern English, the conjunction ('that') was sometimes omitted after verbs of expression in some contexts ( 'Then they said [that] they were unable to.'). Strong verbs The infinitive, the first- and third-person singular preterite, the plural preterite, and the past participle are the four constituent parts identifying a strong verb based on the vowel gradation, including changes to vowel quality or length, that signals a change in meaning. Like nominal declensions, phonological explanations for irregularity are present and similarly do not change classification. There were six classes of strong verbs in Old Frisian with a seventh catch-all category. Classes IV and V became functionally identical after i-mutation, a morphophonological change which obfuscated the differentiation between the historical and in some contexts, and are distinguished only by historical provenance. Examples of verbal paradigms can be seen below: Weak verbs Unique to Old Frisian, there were only two weak verb classes; Gothic had twice as many, while Old Norse, Old English, Old Saxon, and Old High German each had three. Class I weak verbs comprised verbs which originally had a suffix, , which created causative verbs from strong verb stems and factitive verbs from nouns and adjectives, such as ('to judge') from ('judgement'). Morphophonologically, the affected consonants through assibilation and the vowels through mutation. Class I weak verbs have the past tense suffix , or after voiceless consonants. Geminated consonants become simple in the preterite and past participles. By contrast, class II weak verbs are typically those which end in . These verbs have their past tense marked by the deletion of the and the addition of the suffix ; the past participle is formed with the same deletion and a simple suffix. Later forms of the suffixes are and , respectively. In late Old West Frisian, these past tense suffixes were deleted. Class II has remained productive into the modern period; Frisian is the only branch of West Germanic languages to have preserved this class of verbs. Preterite-present Germanic languages have a verb class in which a form resembling a past-tense strong verb supplies the present-tense meaning while the past-tense form is re-formed with a weak verbal suffix; infinitive forms are also formed through innovation. These verbs exhibit expected vowel alternations for strong verbs for some forms while other forms are in line with expected weak verb declensions. In Old Frisian, they are categorized into one of the six strong verb classes the strong verb form is derived from. ==Syntax==

Case Case did not vary much in Old Frisian when compared to other contemporary Germanic languages. The nominative case was used for the subjects or subject complements though it was also used in vocative contexts. While the main use of the accusative was to mark the direct object of a verb, it was also used in temporal and spatial expressions, such as mentioning spaces of time (, 'nine months') or distances ( 'He should walk the nine hot plowshares.'). Genitive usage was complex and multifaceted; it marked possession and relationships, but was also used to mark adverbs and had both partitive and numerical functions including measures (, 'when we sent seven hundred [armed] men') and counting (, 'thirty fathoms'). The dative case was also complex. Although it marked the indirect object of a ditransitive verb, it was sometimes used for the direct objects of transitive verbs, such as ('to help'). The dative shared some overlap in function with the genitive, including its use in adverbial phrases and measurements. Dative constructions were also used to mark the benefactive, such as in the sentence ('God rested [for himself]'). A number of adjectives govern the dative as well, typically marking either physical or emotional closeness. As the case system began to break down in Old Frisian, authors – especially those of legal documents – came to rely heavily on word order and changed the use of prepositions. By late Old Frisian, case marking was optional. Verbs Old Frisian marked for two tenses in the verbal root: simple present and simple past, also called the simple preterite. All other tenses, called compound tenses, were expressed through periphrasis using auxiliary verbs. While these tenses were not common in earlier forms of the language, they became more popular over time. Compound tenses used the auxiliaries meaning 'to have' ( in Old East Frisian, in Old West Frisian) and 'to be' (). The use of / and the past participle were used to express the past perfective and less commonly the pluperfect. These usages were largely constrained to dependent clauses. The use of is less clear, but it appears to have been used as somewhat of a present progressive when in combination with a present participle. It is often difficult to differentiate between a progressive semantic meaning or a copular relationship. Particularly with verbs of motion, was also used in some intransitive contexts to express the perfect or pluperfect to express changes in state. The perfect of was used with /, though this was uncommon in earlier forms of the language. The passive voice was typically constructed with the verb ('to become') and the past participle, though and the past participle could be used to form a perfective passive. The combined use of and the present participle were used for the durative aspect, while the future tense used the combination of the auxiliary and the infinitive. Non-auxiliary verbs, such as ('to begin') and ('to go'), were used with the infinitive to express an inchoative aspect. Similarly, verbs like ('to do') and ('to let') were used to form the causative. The language also marked for three moods in the root: indicative for statements of fact or observations, subjunctive for subjective thoughts including guesswork and conjecture, and imperative for commands. The indicative and subjunctive moods may be used next to each other in different clauses of the same sentence. The infinitive was used in several ways, but the inflected infinitive – an infinitive preceded by – operated as a gerund. This inflected form was used to express purpose and sentences containing it would often drop the subject and the associated finite verb. A unique construction using the uninflected infinitive, called the accusative-plus-infinitive construction, was sometimes used as a complement, as in ('then they saw sitting a thirteenth [man]'). Word order Word order in Old Frisian varied widely depending on context and function. The language's constituent word order is generally described as subject–object–verb. Dependent clauses strongly tend towards this word order as well, though some departures from this trend are attested. However, analysis of the existing corpora involving charter documents shows that about 60% of dependent sentences with direct objects have a subject–verb–object construction. Object–verb–subject constructions were commonly employed as a method of topicalization, wherein certain parts of the sentence were emphasized over others. Both conditional and interrogative clauses were typically verb–subject–object. Dependent conditional clauses use object–subject–verb constructions as well when interrogative pronouns are in grammatical cases other than the nominative. In contexts using a case other than the nominative, pronouns could be moved between the verb and the subject when the subject is in a later position than the verb, leading to a verb–object–subject word order. This word order is completely absent in modern Frisian. Examples of this include the following: Like all other Germanic languages at some point in their history, Old Frisian exhibits properties of verb-second word order, though its application is inconsistent. This means that the verb appears in the second position in independent clauses with a finite verb, but reverts to verb-final word order in subordinate clauses. Old Frisian sentences almost always required a subject and the language often employed the use of dummy subjects. This appears to be a syntactic necessity even when there was not semantic function. Examples include verbs involving the weather and impersonal passives, respectively demonstrated below: Negation In Old Frisian, negative sentences could be derived from the simple addition of a negative element, such as ('not') or ('nobody'), or double negative constructions. While there is a preference in the language for double negatives, all three stages of Jespersen's cycle are present in the existing corpora, though neither of the two Rüstringer codices – the two oldest codices – exhibit the last stage. The negative marker precedes the finite verb in both kinds of constructions. Examples include: The negative marker often cliticized to the following auxiliary, such as in ('to not have'; from + ) and ('is not'; from + ). In sentences where the finite verb is elided, the negative marker is also elided and no words or any affixes can come between them. For these reasons, the negative marker and the verb are seen as a unified syntactic unit, with serving the function of a syntactic clitic. This is not the case for other negative elements, such as , which can be divided by other syntactic functions. Contrastive examples of this are demonstrated below, both from the : In sentences where the only verb is a finite verb in a main clause, the use of is mostly restricted to the sentence-final position, but in subordinate clauses with double negatives, is promoted to before . ==See also==