Antiquity According to medieval Irish legend, High King
Túathal Techtmar was exiled to
Roman Britain before returning to claim Tara. Based on the accounts of
Tacitus, some modern historians associate him with an "Irish prince" said to have been entertained by
Agricola, Governor of Britain, and speculate at Roman sponsorship. His grandson,
Conn Cétchathach, is the ancestor of the
Connachta who would dominate the Irish Middle Ages. They gained control of what would now be named Connacht. Their close relatives the
Érainn (both groups descend from
Óengus Tuirmech Temrach) and the Ulaid would later lose out to them in Ulster, as the descendants of the
Three Collas in
Airgíalla and
Niall Noígíallach in
Ailech extended their hegemony. The Gaels emerged into the clear historical record during the classical era, with
ogham inscriptions and quite detailed references in
Greco-Roman ethnography (most notably by
Ptolemy). The
Roman Empire conquered most of Britain in the 1st century, but did not conquer Ireland or the far north of Britain. The Gaels had
relations with the Roman world, mostly through trade. Roman jewellery and coins have been found at several Irish royal sites, for example. Gaels, known to the Romans as
Scoti, also carried out raids on
Roman Britain, together with the
Picts. These raids increased in the 4th century, as
Roman rule in Britain began to collapse. There was also some Irish settlement in
Cornwall. By the 6th century, the division of Ireland into two spheres of influence (
Leath Cuinn and Leath Moga) was largely a reality. In the south, the influence of the
Eóganachta based at
Cashel grew further, to the detriment of Érainn clans such as the
Corcu Loígde and
Clann Conla. Through their vassals the
Déisi (descended from
Fiacha Suidhe and later known as the
Dál gCais), Munster was extended north of the
River Shannon, laying the foundations for
Thomond. Aside from their gains in Ulster (excluding the Érainn's
Ulaid), the
Uí Néill's southern branch had also pushed down into
Mide and
Brega. By the 9th century, some of the most powerful kings were being acknowledged as
High King of Ireland. , one of the finest examples of
Insular art. It is believed to have been made in Gaelic monasteries in Ireland and Scotland. Some, particularly champions of Christianity, hold the 6th to 9th centuries to be a
Golden Age for the Gaels. This is due to the influence which the Gaels had across
Western Europe as part of their
Christian missionary activities. Similar to the
Desert Fathers, Gaelic monastics were known for their
asceticism. Learned in
Greek and
Latin during an age of cultural collapse, the Gaelic scholars were able to gain a presence at the court of the
Carolingian Frankish Empire; perhaps the best known example is
Johannes Scotus Eriugena. Aside from their activities abroad,
insular art flourished domestically, with artifacts such as the
Book of Kells and
Tara Brooch surviving.
Clonmacnoise,
Glendalough,
Clonard,
Durrow and
Inis Cathaigh are some of the more prominent Ireland-based monasteries founded during this time. was one of the leaders in the struggle with the Norsemen. There is some evidence in early
Icelandic sagas such as the
Íslendingabók that the Gaels may have visited the
Faroe Islands and
Iceland before the
Norse, and that Gaelic monks known as
papar (meaning father) lived there before being driven out by the incoming Norsemen. The late 8th century heralded outside involvement in Gaelic affairs, as Norsemen from
Scandinavia, known as the
Vikings, began to raid and pillage settlements. The earliest recorded raids were on
Rathlin and
Iona in 795; these hit and run attacks continued for some time until the Norsemen began to settle in the 840s at
Dublin (setting up a large slave market),
Limerick,
Waterford and elsewhere. The Norsemen also took most of the Hebrides and the
Isle of Man from the Dál Riata clans and established the
Kingdom of the Isles. The monarchy of
Pictland had kings of Gaelic origin, since the 7th century with
Bruide mac Der-Ilei, around the times of the
Cáin Adomnáin. However, Pictland remained a separate realm from Dál Riata, until the latter gained full hegemony during the reign of
Kenneth MacAlpin from the
House of Alpin, whereby Dál Riata and Pictland were merged to form the
Kingdom of Alba. This meant an acceleration of Gaelicisation in the northern part of Great Britain. The
Battle of Brunanburh in 937 defined the Anglo-Saxon
Kingdom of England as the hegemonic force in Great Britain, over a Gaelic-Viking alliance. After a spell when the Norsemen were driven from Dublin by Leinsterman
Cerball mac Muirecáin, they returned in the reign of
Niall Glúndub, heralding a second Viking period. The Dublin Norse—some of them, such as
Uí Ímair king
Ragnall ua Ímair now partly Gaelicised as the
Norse-Gaels—were a serious regional power, with territories across
Northumbria and
York. At the same time, the Uí Néill branches were involved in an internal power struggle for hegemony between the northern or southern branches.
Donnchad Donn raided
Munster and took
Cellachán Caisil of the Eóganachta hostage. The destabilisation led to the rise of the Dál gCais and
Brian Bóruma. Through military might, Brian went about building a Gaelic
Imperium under his High Kingship, even gaining the submission of
Máel Sechnaill mac Domnaill. They were involved in a series of battles against the Vikings:
Tara,
Glenmama and
Clontarf. The last of these saw Brian's death in 1014. Brian's campaign is glorified in the
Cogad Gáedel re Gallaib ("The War of the Gaels with the Foreigners").
Later Middle Ages The Irish Church became closer to Continental models with the
Synod of Ráth Breasail and the arrival of the
Cistercians. There was also more trade and communication with Normanised Britain and France. Between themselves, the
Ó Briain and the
Ó Conchobhair attempted to build a national monarchy. The remainder of the Middle Ages was marked by conflict between Gaels and
Anglo-Normans. The
Norman invasion of Ireland took place in stages during the late 12th century. Norman mercenaries landed in
Leinster in 1169 at the request of
Diarmait Mac Murchada, who sought their help in regaining his throne. By 1171 the Normans had gained control of Leinster, and King
Henry II of England, with the backing of the Papacy, established the
Lordship of Ireland. The Norman kings of England claimed sovereignty over this territory, leading to centuries of conflict between the Normans and the native Irish. At this time, a literary anti-Gaelic sentiment was born and developed by the likes of
Gerald of Wales as part of a propaganda campaign (with a
Gregorian "reform" gloss) to justify taking Gaelic lands. Scotland also came under Anglo-Norman influence in the 12th century. The
Davidian Revolution saw the Normanisation of Scotland's monarchy, government and church; the founding of
burghs, which became mainly English-speaking; and the royally-sponsored immigration of Norman aristocrats. This Normanisation was mainly limited to the
Scottish Lowlands. In Ireland, the Normans carved out their own semi-independent lordships, but many Gaelic Irish kingdoms remained outside Norman control and
gallowglass warriors were brought in from the Highlands to fight for various Irish kings. In 1315, a
Scottish army landed in Ireland as part of Scotland's
war against England. It was led by
Edward Bruce, brother of Scottish king
Robert the Bruce. Despite his own Norman ancestry, Edward urged the Irish to ally with the Scots by invoking a shared Gaelic ancestry and culture, and most of the northern kings acknowledged him as High King of Ireland. However, the campaign ended three years later with Edward's defeat and death in the
Battle of Faughart. A Gaelic Irish resurgence began in the mid-14th century: English royal control shrank to an area known as
the Pale and, outside this, many Norman lords adopted Gaelic culture, becoming culturally Gaelicised. The English government tried to prevent this through the
Statutes of Kilkenny (1366), which forbade English settlers from adopting Gaelic culture, but the results were mixed and particularly in the West, some Normans became Gaelicised. 's
Clans of The Scottish Highlands (1845)
Imperial era During the 16th and 17th centuries, the Gaels were affected by the policies of the
Tudors and the
Stewarts who sought to anglicise the population and bring both Ireland and the Highlands under stronger centralised control, as part of what would become the
British Empire. In 1542,
Henry VIII of England declared the Lordship of Ireland
a Kingdom and himself King of Ireland. The new English, whose power lay in the Pale of Dublin, then began to
conquer the island. Gaelic kings were encouraged to apply for a
surrender and regrant: to surrender their lands to the king, and then have them regranted as
freeholds. Those who surrendered were also expected to follow English law and customs, speak English, and convert to the Protestant
Anglican Church. Decades of conflict followed in the reign of
Elizabeth I, culminating in the
Nine Years' War (1594–1603). The war ended in defeat for the Irish Gaelic alliance and brought an end to the independence of the last Irish Gaelic kingdoms. In 1603, with the
Union of the Crowns, King
James of Scotland also became king of England and Ireland. James saw the Gaels as a barbarous and rebellious people in need of civilising, and believed that Gaelic culture should be wiped out. Also, while most of Britain had converted to Protestantism, most Gaels had held on to Catholicism. When the leaders of the Irish Gaelic alliance
fled Ireland in 1607, their lands were confiscated. James set about colonising this land with English-speaking Protestant settlers from Britain, in what became known as the
Plantation of Ulster. It was meant to establish a loyal British Protestant colony in Ireland's most rebellious region and to sever Gaelic Ulster's links with Gaelic Scotland. In Scotland, James attempted to subdue the Gaelic clans and suppress their culture through laws such as the
Statutes of Iona. He also attempted to colonise the
Isle of Lewis with
settlers from the Lowlands. Since then, the Gaelic language has gradually diminished in most of Ireland and Scotland. The 19th century was the turning point as
The Great Hunger in Ireland, and across the
Irish Sea the
Highland Clearances, caused mass emigration (leading to Anglicisation, but also a large
diaspora). The language was rolled back to the Gaelic strongholds of the
north west of Scotland, the west of Ireland and
Cape Breton Island in Nova Scotia.
Modern era The
Gaelic revival also occurred in the 19th century, with organisations such as
Conradh na Gaeilge and
An Comunn Gàidhealach attempting to restore the prestige of Gaelic culture and the socio-communal hegemony of the Gaelic languages. Many of the participants in the
Irish Revolution of 1912–1923 were inspired by these ideals and so when a sovereign state was formed (the
Irish Free State),
post-colonial enthusiasm for the re-
Gaelicisation of Ireland was high and promoted through public education. Results were very mixed however and the
Gaeltacht where native speakers lived continued to retract. In the 1960s and 70s, pressure from groups such as
Misneach (supported by
Máirtín Ó Cadhain), the
Gluaiseacht Chearta Siabhialta na Gaeltachta and others; particularly in
Connemara; paved the way for the creation of development agencies such as
Údarás na Gaeltachta and state media (television and radio) in Irish. The last
native speaker of Manx died in the 1970s, though use of the Manx language never fully ceased. There is now a resurgent language movement and Manx is once again taught in all schools as a second language and in some as a first language. ==Culture==