Ancient Korea from the
Silla era, a
UNESCO World Heritage Site The Korean Peninsula was inhabited as early as the
Lower Paleolithic period. According to Korea's
founding mythology, the history of Korea begins with the founding of Joseon (also known as "
Gojoseon", or "Old Joseon", to differentiate it from the 14th century dynasty) in 2333 BC by the legendary
Dangun. Gojoseon was noted in Chinese records in the early 7th century. Gojoseon expanded until it controlled the northern Korean Peninsula and parts of
Manchuria.
Gija Joseon was purportedly founded in the 12th century BC, but its existence and role have been controversial in the modern era. In 108 BC, the
Han dynasty defeated Wiman Joseon and installed
four commanderies in the northern Korean peninsula. Three of the commanderies fell or retreated westward within a few decades, but the
Lelang commandery remained a center of cultural and economic exchange with successive Chinese dynasties ruling for four centuries, until it was conquered by Goguryeo in 313. The linguistic homeland of Proto-
Koreans is located somewhere in southern
Siberia/
Manchuria, such as the
Liao River area or the
Amur River area. Proto-Koreans arrived in the southern part of the Korean Peninsula at around 300 BC, replacing and assimilating
Japonic-speaking
Yayoi and likely causing their migration to the
Japanese archipelago.
Three Kingdoms of Korea During the
Proto–Three Kingdoms period, the states of
Buyeo,
Okjeo,
Dongye, and
Samhan occupied the whole Korean peninsula and southern Manchuria. From them, the
Three Kingdoms of Korea emerged:
Goguryeo,
Baekje, and
Silla. Goguryeo, the largest and most powerful among them, was a highly militaristic state and competed with various Chinese dynasties during its 700 years of history. Goguryeo experienced a golden age under
Gwanggaeto the Great and his son
Jangsu, who both subdued Baekje and Silla during their respective reigns, achieving a brief unification of the Three Kingdoms and becoming the most dominant power on the Korean Peninsula. In addition to contesting control of the Korean Peninsula, Goguryeo had many
military conflicts with various
Chinese dynasties, most notably the
Goguryeo–Sui War, in which Goguryeo defeated a huge force said to number over a million men. '', was printed in 1377, and
Goryeo created the world's first metal-based movable type in 1234. sometimes called the "
Phoenicia of East Asia". Its maritime ability was instrumental in the dissemination of
Buddhism throughout East Asia and spreading continental culture to Japan. Baekje was once a great military power on the Korean Peninsula, especially during the time of
Geunchogo, but was critically defeated by Gwanggaeto the Great and declined. Silla was the smallest and weakest of the three, but used opportunistic pacts and alliances with the more powerful Korean kingdoms, and eventually
Tang China, to its advantage. In 676, the unification of the Three Kingdoms by Silla led to the
Northern and Southern States period, in which relationships between Korea and China remained relatively peaceful.
Balhae, a Goguryeo successor state founded by a
general, controlled most of Manchuria and parts of the Russian Far East and was called the "Prosperous Country in the East". In addition to Koreans, there were many other ethnicities such as the
Mohe,
Turkic, and Chinese.
Late Silla was a wealthy country, and its metropolitan capital of
Gyeongju grew to become the fourth largest city in the world. It experienced a golden age of art and culture, exemplified by monuments such as
Hwangnyongsa,
Seokguram, and the
Emille Bell. It also carried on the maritime legacy and prowess of Baekje, and during the 8th and 9th centuries dominated the seas of East Asia and the trade between China, Korea, and Japan, most notably during the time of
Chang Pogo. In addition, the Silla people made overseas communities in China on the
Shandong Peninsula and the mouth of the
Yangtze River. However, Silla was later weakened due to internal strife and the revival of successor states
Baekje and
Goguryeo, which culminated into the
Later Three Kingdoms period in the late 9th century. Buddhism flourished during this time. Many
Korean Buddhists gained great fame among Chinese Buddhist circles and greatly contributed to
Chinese Buddhism. Examples of significant Korean Buddhists from this period include
Woncheuk,
Wonhyo,
Uisang,
Musang, and
Kim Gyo-gak. Kim was a Silla prince whose influence made
Mount Jiuhua one of the Four
Sacred Mountains of Chinese Buddhism.
Unified dynasties , pictured in 2014, one of the Five Grand Palaces of Seoul built during the Joseon dynasty and a
UNESCO World Heritage Site|upright=0.9 , a
UNESCO World Heritage Site (2019)|upright=0.9 In 936, the Later Three Kingdoms were united by
Wang Geon, who established
Goryeo as a successor state to Goguryeo. Balhae had fallen to the
Khitan Empire in 926, and a decade later the
last crown prince of Balhae fled south to Goryeo, where he was warmly welcomed and included in the ruling family by Wang Geon, thus unifying the two successor nations of Goguryeo. Like Silla, Goryeo was a highly cultural state, and invented the metal movable type
printing press. After defeating the Khitan Empire, which was the most powerful empire of its time in the
Goryeo–Khitan War, Goryeo experienced a golden age that lasted a century, during which the
Tripitaka Koreana was completed and significant developments in printing and publishing occurred. This promoted education and the dispersion of knowledge on philosophy, literature, religion, and science. By 1100, there were 12 universities that produced notable scholars. However, the
Mongol invasions in the 13th century greatly weakened the kingdom. Goryeo was never conquered by the Mongols, but exhausted after three decades of fighting, the Korean court sent its
crown prince to the
Yuan capital to swear allegiance to
Kublai Khan, who accepted and married one of his daughters to the Korean crown prince. Henceforth, Goryeo continued to rule Korea, though as a tributary ally to the Mongols for the next 86 years. During this period, the two nations' royalty became intertwined as all subsequent Korean kings married Mongol princesses. The first 200 years of the Joseon dynasty were marked by peace and saw great advancements in science and education, among them the creation of
Hangul by
Sejong the Great to promote literacy among the common people. The prevailing ideology of the time was
Neo-Confucianism, which was epitomized by the
seonbi class: nobles who passed up positions of wealth and power to lead lives of study and integrity. Between 1592 and 1598, Japan under
Toyotomi Hideyoshi launched
invasions of Korea, but the advance was halted by Korean forces (most notably the
Joseon Navy led by Admiral
Yi Sun-sin and his renowned "
turtle ship") with assistance from
righteous army militias formed by Korean civilians, and
Ming dynasty Chinese troops. Through a series of successful battles of attrition, the Japanese forces were eventually forced to withdraw, and relations between all parties became normalized. However, the
Manchus took advantage of Joseon's war-weakened state and
invaded in 1627 and 1637. After normalizing relations with the new
Qing dynasty, Joseon experienced a nearly 200-year period of peace. Kings
Yeongjo and
Jeongjo particularly led a new renaissance of the Joseon dynasty during the 18th century. In the 19th century, Joseon began experiencing economic difficulties and widespread uprisings, including the
Donghak Peasant Revolution. The royal in-law families had gained control of the government, leading to mass corruption and weakening of the state. Additionally, the strict isolationism of the Joseon government that earned it the nickname "the
hermit kingdom" became increasingly ineffective due to increasing encroachment from powers such as Japan, Russia, and the United States. This was exemplified by the
Joseon–United States Treaty of 1882, which forced Joseon to open its borders.
Japanese occupation and World War II 1919, protests in
Seoul against
Japanese colonial rule In the late 19th century, Japan became a significant regional power after winning the
First Sino-Japanese War against Qing China and the
Russo-Japanese War against the
Russian Empire. In 1897, King Gojong, the
last king of Korea, proclaimed Joseon as the
Korean Empire. However, Japan
compelled Korea to become its protectorate in 1905 and
formally annexed it in 1910. What followed was a period of forced assimilation in which Korean language, culture, and history were suppressed. This led to the
March First Movement protests in 1919 and the subsequent foundation of resistance groups in exile, primarily in China. Among the resistance groups was
Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea. Towards the end of
World War II, the U.S. proposed dividing the Korean peninsula into two occupation zones: a
U.S. zone and a
Soviet zone.
Dean Rusk and
Charles H. Bonesteel III suggested the
38th parallel as the dividing line, as it placed Seoul under U.S. control. To the surprise of Rusk and Bonesteel, the Soviets accepted their proposal and agreed to divide Korea.
Division of Korea Despite intentions to liberate a unified peninsula in the
1943 Cairo Declaration, escalating tensions between the Soviet Union and the United States led to the
division of Korea into two political entities in 1948: North Korea and South Korea. In the South, the United States appointed and supported the former head of the Korean Provisional Government
Syngman Rhee as leader. Rhee won the first presidential elections of the newly declared Republic of Korea in May 1948. In the North, the Soviets backed a former anti-Japanese guerrilla and communist activist,
Kim Il Sung, who was appointed premier of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea in September. In October, the Soviet Union declared Kim Il Sung's government as sovereign over both the north and south. The UN declared Rhee's government as "a lawful government having effective control and jurisdiction over that part of Korea where the UN Temporary Commission on Korea was able to observe and consult" and the government "based on elections which was observed by the Temporary Commission" in addition to a statement that "this is the only such government in Korea." Both leaders engaged in authoritarian repression of political opponents. South Korea requested military support from the United States but was denied, while North Korea's military was heavily reinforced by the Soviet Union.
Korean War . On June 25, 1950,
North Korea invaded South Korea, sparking the
Korean War, the
Cold War's first major conflict, which continued until 1953. At the time, the Soviet Union had boycotted the UN, thus forfeiting
their veto rights. This allowed the UN to intervene in a civil war when it became apparent that the superior North Korean forces would unify the entire country. The Soviet Union and China backed North Korea, with the later participation of millions of
Chinese troops. After an ebb and flow that saw both sides facing defeat with massive losses among Korean civilians in both the north and the south, the war eventually reached a stalemate. During the war, Rhee's party promoted the
One-People Principle, an effort to build an obedient citizenry through ethnic homogeneity and authoritarian appeals to
nationalism. The
1953 armistice, never signed by South Korea, split the peninsula along the
demilitarized zone near the original demarcation line. No peace treaty was ever signed, resulting in the two countries remaining technically at war. Approximately 3 million people died in the Korean War, with a higher proportional civilian death toll than
World War II or the
Vietnam War, making it one of the deadliest conflicts of the Cold War era. In addition, virtually all of Korea's major cities were destroyed by the war.
Miracle on the Han River grew at an average of 10% annually, fueled by annual export growth of 20%, in a period called the
Miracle on the Han River.In 1960, a student uprising (the "
April Revolution") led to the resignation of the autocratic President Syngman Rhee. This was followed by 13 months of political instability as South Korea was led by the weak and ineffectual
Second Republic. This instability was broken by the
May 16, 1961 coup led by General
Park Chung Hee. As president, Park oversaw a period of rapid
export-led economic growth enforced by
political repression. Under Park, South Korea
took an active role in the Vietnam War. Park was heavily criticized as a ruthless military dictator who, in 1972, extended his rule by creating a
new constitution, which gave the president dictatorial powers and permitted him to run for an unlimited number of six-year terms. The
Korean economy developed significantly during Park's tenure, largely due to investment in
family-run conglomerates. The government developed the
nationwide expressway system, the
Seoul subway system, and laid the foundation for economic development during his 17-year tenure, which ended with
his assassination on 26 October, 1979. The years after Park's assassination were marked again by political turmoil, as the previously suppressed opposition leaders all campaigned to run for president in the sudden political void. In 1979, General
Chun Doo-hwan led the
coup d'état of December Twelfth. On May 17, 1980, Chun forced the Cabinet to expand martial law to the whole nation, which had previously not applied to
Jeju Island. The expanded martial law closed universities, banned political activities, and further curtailed the press. Chun's assumption of the presidency through the events of May 17 triggered nationwide protests demanding democracy; these protests were particularly widespread in
Gwangju, to which Chun sent special forces to violently suppress the 18–27 May 1980
Gwangju Democratization Movement at the cost of probably 500 to 2,000 civilian lives and 26 dead soldiers (half of them by
friendly fire). Chun subsequently created the National Defense Emergency Policy Committee and took the presidency according to his political plan. Chun and his government held South Korea under a despotic rule until 1987, when a
Seoul National University student,
Park Jong-chul, was tortured to death. On , the
Catholic Priests Association for Justice revealed the incident, igniting the
June Democratic Struggle across the country. Eventually, Chun's party, the
Democratic Justice Party, and its leader,
Roh Tae-woo, announced the
June 29 Declaration, which promised a democratic election of the president.
Democracy , the 2000
Nobel Peace Prize recipient for advancing democracy and human rights in South Korea and East Asia and for reconciliation with North Korea, was sometimes called the "
Nelson Mandela of Asia".
South Korea was formally invited to become a member of the United Nations in 1991. The transition of Korea from autocracy to modern democracy was marked in 1997 by the election of Kim Dae-jung, who was sworn in as the eighth president of South Korea on February 25, 1998. His election was significant given that he had in earlier years been a political prisoner sentenced to death (later commuted to exile). He won against the backdrop of the
1997 Asian financial crisis, during which he took
IMF advice to restructure the economy, and the nation soon recovered its economic growth, albeit at a slower pace. In June 2000, as part of President Kim Dae-jung's "
Sunshine Policy" of engagement, a
North–South summit took place in
Pyongyang, the capital of North Korea, now ruled by Kim Il Sung's son
Kim Jong Il. Later that year, Kim received the
Nobel Peace Prize "for his work for democracy and human rights in South Korea and in East Asia in general, and for peace and reconciliation with North Korea in particular". However, because of discontent among the population for fruitless approaches to the North under the previous administrations and, amid North Korean provocations, a conservative government was elected in 2007 led by President
Lee Myung-bak, former
mayor of Seoul. While
South Korean and Japanese relations improved when they jointly co-hosted the
2002 FIFA World Cup, it later
soured because of conflicting claims of sovereignty over the
Liancourt Rocks. chair of the
G-20 when it hosted the
2010 Seoul summit. In 2010, there was an
escalation in attacks by North Korea. In March 2010, the South Korean warship
ROKS Cheonan was sunk killing 46 South Korean sailors, allegedly by a North Korean submarine. In November 2010,
Yeonpyeongdo was attacked by a significant North Korean artillery barrage, with 4 people dying. The official UN report declined to explicitly name North Korea as the perpetrator of the
Cheonan sinking. The lack of a strong response to these attacks from both South Korea and the international community caused significant anger among the South Korean public.
Contemporary history The children of presidents Park Chung Hee and Kim Jong Il would take power in the two Koreas from 2011 to 2012.
Kim Jong Un succeeded his father as leader of North Korea in 2011, while South Korea elected the first-ever female president
Park Geun-hye in the
2012 election. The conservative Park Geun-hye administration was formally accused of corruption, bribery, and influence-peddling for the involvement of Park's close friend
Choi Soon-sil in state affairs. There followed a series of
nationwide public demonstrations from November 2016, and she was removed from office. After the fallout of Park's impeachment and dismissal, elections were held and
Moon Jae-in of the
Democratic Party won the presidency, immediately taking office on May 10, 2017. His tenure saw an improving political relationship with North Korea, some increasing divergence in the military alliance with the United States, and the successful hosting of
the Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang. In April 2018, Park Geun-hye was sentenced to 24 years in jail and convicted of abuse of power and corruption.
The COVID-19 pandemic caused South Korea to record more deaths than births, resulting in a population decline for the first time on record. In March 2022,
Yoon Suk Yeol, the candidate of the conservative opposition
People Power Party, won a close
election over Democratic Party candidate
Lee Jae-myung by the narrowest margin in the history of the Sixth Republic and was sworn in on May 10, 2022. He declared
martial law on December 3, 2024, accusing the opposition of being pro-North Korean and conducting anti-state activities. After several hours, the National Assembly voted to nullify the declaration in a unanimous vote of 190/0, causing Yoon to end martial law early on December 4. Yoon's actions resulted in
his impeachment on December 14, 2024, followed by his unanimous removal from office on April 4, 2025. Lee Jae-myung won the
election to succeed Yoon, immediately taking office on June 4, 2025. == Geography ==