Truman administration (1945–1953) One of Turkey's most important international relationships has been with the United States since the end of the Second World War and the beginning of the
Cold War.
Soviet Union (Straits crisis, Truman Doctrine, Korean War, NATO) In 1945, the
Turkish Straits crisis developed over the request for Russian military bases in the
Turkish Straits as part of
Soviet territorial claims against Turkey. After World War II, the Soviet government pressured Turkey to allow Russian shipping to pass freely through the
Turkish Straits. Tensions in the region led to a show of naval force by the Soviets after Turkey refused to comply with the Soviet Union's requests. In 1946,
President Truman returned the body of
Münir Ertegün, former Turkish Ambassador to Washington (2nd Ambassador of Turkey to the United States), back to Istanbul with the battleship . Missouri, with her 1,515 officers and enlisted men, honored the deceased between March 21, 1946, Washington, and April 5 Istanbul, until his body was given to his family. It was a gesture not only to
Turkish foreign service but also to demonstrate that the US was defending Turkey against Soviet threats. in 1947, British assistance to Turkey ended. The U.S. dispatched military aid to ensure that Turkey would retain chief control of the passage. Turkey began to associate with the United States in 1947 when the
United States Congress designated Turkey, under the provisions of the "Truman Doctrine", as the recipient of special economic and military assistance intended to help it resist threats from the Soviet Union. The
Truman Doctrine was an American foreign policy that sought to counter Soviet geopolitical expansion during the Cold War. The Truman Doctrine used adherence to democracy in its strategic goals. Truman used the advancement of liberal Democracy to secure congressional aid for Turkey. Truman's strategic imperatives and democratic rhetoric against communist ideology held that, because of US assistance against the Soviets, Turkey moved away from a single-party system towards a multi-party system. There is no causal link between Turkey's democratization and either the Truman Doctrine or Turkey's admission to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). The U.S. sought the
containment strategy at the beginning of the Korean War to defend
Republic of Korea (ROK) from a
communist invasion by
Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK). In support of the US' overall Cold War strategy, Turkey contributed to the United Nations forces in the
Korean War (1950–53). Turkey received $111 million in economic and military aid, and the U.S. sent the
aircraft carrier Franklin D. Roosevelt. The Marshall Plan intended to direct Turkey towards developments in the agriculture, mining, and tourism sectors. Tractors and other agricultural equipment entered the country, sparking a production boom. The aid to the Turkish military went back to the US military-industrial complex. .
Eisenhower administration (1953–1961) Soviet Union (NATO, CENTO, U-2 incident) Turkey was a founding member of the
Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) collective defense pact established in 1955, and endorsed the principles of the 1957
Eisenhower Doctrine. On May 1, Captain Powers left the base in Peshawar on a mission with the operations code word GRAND SLAM. Four days after Powers' disappearance,
NASA issued a very detailed press release noting that an aircraft had "gone missing" north of Turkey. On May 13 the Soviet Union sent complaints to Turkey, who in turn protested to the United States. Turkey acquired assurances that no U.S. aircraft would be allowed for unauthorized purposes.
Kennedy and Johnson administrations (1961–1969) Soviet Union (Missile Crisis) Turkey risked nuclear war on its soil during the Cuban Missile Crisis. It was a 13-day confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union initiated by the American discovery of Soviet
ballistic missile deployment in
Cuba. In response to the failed
Bay of Pigs Invasion of 1961 and the presence of American
Jupiter ballistic missiles in Italy and Turkey, Soviet leader
Nikita Khrushchev agreed to Cuba's request to place nuclear missiles on the island to deter a future invasion.
John F. Kennedy and Khrushchev reached an agreement. Publicly, the Soviets would dismantle their offensive weapons in Cuba, in exchange for a US public declaration and agreement to avoid invading Cuba again. Secretly, the United States agreed to dismantle all US-built
Jupiter MRBMs that had been deployed in Turkey and Italy against the Soviet Union. In 2017,
The Putin Interviews claimed that the placement of Russian missiles in Cuba was a Russian reaction to the earlier stationing of American missiles in Turkey in 1961–62; Khrushchev attempted to achieve a balance of power.
Greece (Cyprus, Johnson letter) addressing the Turkish people on
Atatürk on the
Republic Day The
Cyprus Emergency was a
conflict fought in
British Cyprus between 1955 and 1959. The
National Organisation of Cypriot Fighters (EOKA), a
Greek Cypriot right-wing nationalist
guerrilla organisation, began an armed campaign in support of ending
British colonial rule and enabling the
unification of Cyprus and Greece (
Enosis) in 1955. Opposition to
Enosis among
Turkish Cypriots led to the formation of the
Turkish Resistance Organisation (TMT) in support of the
partition of Cyprus and in the mid-1960s relations worsened between Greek and Turkish communities on Cyprus. Britain wanted to hand the crisis and a peacekeeping role to either NATO or UN forces.
US President Lyndon B. Johnson tried to prevent a Turkish invasion of Cyprus and war between them. American diplomat
George Ball found
Archbishop Makarios, president of Cyprus, difficult to deal with, as he commonly rejected the advice. The Americans secretly talked to General
Georgios Grivas, leader of the
EOKA guerrilla organization. While invasion and war did not occur, the U.S. alienated both the Greek and Turkish governments and drove Makarios closer to the Russians and Egyptians. The Cyprus Emergency ended in 1959 with the signing of the
London-Zürich Agreements, establishing the
Republic of Cyprus as a non-partitioned independent state separate from Greece. On June 5, 1964, President LBJ sent a letter to Turkish Premier
İsmet İnönü, the "Johnson letter." The most important point was NATO would be reluctant to defend Turkey. Item 1 was the critical American position toward Turkey. Item 2 was the wake-up call. Johnson revealed to Turkey's political elite that the TAF overly depended on the US. Inonu knew that he would receive a strong message. The letter leaked to the press before messenger left the building. Inonu created a reference point for the nature and intention of American policy on Turkey.
Greece (Cyprus, Arms embargo) After the
1974 Cypriot coup d'état (backed by the
Cypriot National Guard and the
Greek military junta), on July 20, 1974, Turkey invaded
Cyprus, claiming it was protecting the safety of Turkish Cypriots following the
Treaty of Guarantee. The Turkish military occupied the northern third of Cyprus (
Turkish invasion of Cyprus), dividing the island along what became known as the
Green Line monitored by the United Nations, defying the ceasefire. Turkey repeatedly claimed, for decades before the invasion and frequently afterward, that Cyprus was of vital strategic importance to it. Ankara defied a host of UN resolutions demanding the withdrawal of its occupying troops from the island. About 142,000 Greek Cypriots living in the north and 65,000 Turkish Cypriots living in the south were forcibly expelled and were forbidden to return to their homes and properties. 109 Turkish villages were destroyed and 700 Turks were kept as hostages. Daily Telegraph described events as anti-Turkish pogrom. The United States imposed an arms embargo on Turkey in response, and relations between the two countries suffered significantly. The US could not achieve its desired goal by imposing an embargo on Türkiye. However, it caused Türkiye to invest in its defense industry. Soviets saw the expansion of
Warsaw Pact could have a chance in the region.
Soviet Union (Cold War) In 1969, Ambassador
Komer's car was set on fire by the
Marxist-
Leninist
Dev-Genç by the
United States Department of State, carried out attacks against Turkish diplomats and
Turkish Airlines offices between 1975 and 1991. The precursor to the foundation of ASALA was the assassination of Turkish Consul General
Mehmet Baydar and Turkish Consul
Bahadır Demir by Armenian American
Kourken Yanigian, who invited them to a luncheon on January 27, 1973, in
Santa Barbara, California, United States. Yanigian was sentenced to life imprisonment, but many
Armenian Americans expressed support for his views.
Numerous attacks by ASALA were carried out in the United States, Europe and the Middle East.
Carter administration (1977–1981) The geopolitical changes in the Middle East, like the
Iranian Revolution, force the arms embargo was silently removed a few years later with the contribution of the National Security Advisor Zbigniew Brzezinski discussed with his staff a possible American invasion of Iran by using Turkish bases and territory if the Soviets decided to repeat the Afghanistan scenario in Iran, although this plan did not materialize.
Reagan administration (1981–1989) During the 1980s, relations between Turkey and the United States gradually recovered.
Syria (Terrorism) Terrorism in Ba'athist Syria. Syria has been on the
U.S. list of state sponsors of terrorism since the list's inception in 1979 and deems it to be a "safe haven" for terrorists. The
1983 Orly Airport attack by ASALA in
Paris,
France, resulted in the deaths of 8 people and injury of 55 others, which caused widespread international condemnation. The United States, France and numerous other countries began listing ASALA as a terrorist organization. In 1984, the
Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK), designated as a
Foreign Terrorist Organization by the
U.S. State Department, declared itself as a paramilitary group and began staging attacks in the villages and towns of southeastern and eastern Turkey. In 1986, U.S. withdrew ambassador
Thomas J. Scotes in response to evidence of direct Syrian involvement in an attempt to blow up an Israeli airplane. After Syria expelled the
Abu Nidal Organization and helped free an American hostage earlier, U.S. assigned
Richard W. Murphy to
Damascus in 1987. At the same period, Turkey openly threatened Syria over its support for the PKK. Turkey claimed that Syria employed former
Schutzstaffel officer
Alois Brunner to train militants. PKK leader
Abdullah Öcalan was hosted in
Damascus until 1998.
George H. W. Bush administration (1989–1993) and President
Turgut Özal take a cruise on the
Bosporus strait in
Istanbul (July 21, 1991) President
Turgut Ozal believed Turkey's future security depended on the continuation of a strong relationship with the United States. Turkey expanded ties with the Central Asian members of the
CIS. President Özal supported the United States' position during the
Gulf War (August 2, 1990 – January 17, 1991). Turkey's economic ties to Iraq were extensive and their disruption hurt the country. On May 18, 1996, President
Demirel survived an assassination attempt by a sympathizer of the National Youth's Foundation, which was affiliated with the Welfare Party, and was carried out in protest of
military cooperation agreement with Israel. The military agreement was a source of anger for a segment who advocated a closer alignment with "conservative values". Erdoğan was given a ten-month prison sentence for incitement to violence and his mayoral position dropped due to conviction. In 1999, the influential Islamic preacher and Sunni cleric (mufti) based in Izmir
Fethullah Gülen, who was imprisoned in 1971 for subversion, was facing another subversion trial. In
1999 Turkish general election,
Bülent Ecevit's
Democratic Left Party (DSP) emerged as the biggest party and swept the board in most of Turkey's western provinces after the capture of Kurdistan Worker's Party's leader Abdullah Öcalan who was ousted from Syria.
57th government of Turkey was a win for Ecevit and
Ecevitism.
Iraq (Terrorism) Turkey saw the U.S. failure to halt PKK activities in northern Iraq (
Northern Safe Zone) as evidence of a double standard with respect to terrorism and Turkey's security more broadly. Turkey performed: •
Operation Steel: March 20 – May 4, 1995 •
Operation Hammer: May 12 – July 7, 1997 •
Operation Dawn: September 25 – October 15, 1997 In September 1998,
Masoud Barzani and
Jalal Talabani signed the US-mediated Washington Agreement and established a formal peace treaty. In the agreement, the parties agreed to share revenue, share power, and deny the use of northern Iraq to the PKK. President
Bill Clinton signed the
Iraq Liberation Act into law, providing for military assistance to Iraqi opposition groups, which included the PUK and KDP. PKK insurgency waned following
Second Army moved to the border of Syria which was followed by PKK leader's expulsion from Syria and the U.S.-assisted 1999 capture and subsequent trial and conviction.
Syria (Terrorism, Adana Agreement) Turkey condemned Syria for supporting the
Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK), which is listed as a terrorist organization internationally by
a number of states and organizations. Turkey and Syria nearly engaged in war (a narrowly averted conflict) when Turkey threatened military action if Syria continued to shelter
Abdullah Öcalan in
Damascus, his long-time safe haven. Öcalan was the leader and one of the founding members of the PKK. As a result, the Syrian government forced Öcalan to leave the country, who was captured in
Kenya on February 15, 1999, while being transferred from the Greek embassy to
Jomo Kenyatta International Airport in
Nairobi, in an operation by the
National Intelligence Organization (MIT) with the help of the
CIA. The
Adana Agreement signed between Turkey and Syria regarding the terrorism originating (mainly
PKK) from Syria to Turkey. This agreement will be a contentious issue between U.S. and Ankara later, as Turkey will not use the powers in the agreement to move into Syria militarily against the ISIS. The Syrian government will also declare that it felt no longer bound by the agreement.
Iran (Natural gas) On the morning of January 24, 1993,
Uğur Mumcu was killed by a
C-4 plastic bomb. The assassination was initially connected by the investigation to
Iran. It was claimed that Iran's
Ministry of Intelligence employed the
Hezbollah to carry out the assassination. Against the negative public opinion on Iran, the
Tabriz–Ankara pipeline was a priority to the
54th government of Turkey. In 1996, PM Erbakan visited Tehran for the pipeline project which Iran's cooperation against PKK was part of the negotiations. This visit perceived as a snub to
Iran and Libya Sanctions Act.
R. Nicholas Burns said: 'We have made very clear to the Turkish government that Iran is a state that should be isolated. We think that business-as-usual relations with Iran are not wise.'
George W. Bush administration (2001–2009) According to
leaked diplomatic cables originating from 2004, then Prime Minister Erdoğan was described by U.S. diplomats as a "perfectionist workaholic who sincerely cares for the well-being of those around him". He was also described as having "little understanding of politics beyond Ankara" and as surrounding himself with an "iron ring of sycophantic (but contemptuous) advisors". He is said to be "isolated", and that his MPs and Ministers feel "fearful of Erdogan's wrath". Diplomats state that "he relies on his charisma, instincts, and the filterings of advisors who pull conspiracy theories off the Web or are lost in neo-Ottoman Islamist fantasies".
Great-Power in the Middle East (Israel, Davos incident) The
Project for the New American Century was established "to promote American global leadership" as the members view American leadership as good both for America and for the world, and sought to build support for "a Reaganite policy of military strength and moral clarity". The organization's influence originated from the twenty-five people who signed PNAC's founding statement of principles; the
administration of Bush included
Dick Cheney,
Donald Rumsfeld,
Paul Wolfowitz, and seven others in this group in the decision-making positions. During the 2000s, this group challenged regimes hostile to American interests and values, which supported unilateral military action to advance U.S. interests, particularly in the Middle East. "
Ottomanism" was primarily conceived as a reform and renewal project for the declining Ottoman Empire (
Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire) in the 19th century. Ottomanism did not prevent
dissolution of the Ottoman Empire.
Neo-Ottomanism as associated with
Ahmet Davutoğlu (Minister of Foreign Affairs, May 1, 2009 – August 29, 2014), and his foreign policy was to establish Turkey as an influential power within the Balkans, Caucasus, and the Middle East.
2009 Davos incident coincided with a radical domestic transformation in one member of a Western alliance (NATO), leading to a revision of its international alliance preferences. Erdogan's outburst at the 2009 Davos Summit marked a critical juncture, signaling a shift in Turkey's national agenda and alignment policies.
War on terror Turkey had remained a close ally of the United States in the
war on terror after the
September 11 attacks. Turkish President
Ahmet Necdet Sezer and Prime Minister
Bülent Ecevit condemned the attacks and the Turkish government then ordered all of its flags at half-mast for one day of mourning. Turkey participated in the
International Security Assistance Force. According to a report by the
Open Society Foundations, Turkey participated at one point or another with the CIA's
extraordinary rendition program. U.S. ambassador
Ross Wilson revealed the involvement of the Incirlik airbase in a
diplomatic cable dated June 8, 2006, which described Turkey as a crucial ally in the "global war on terror" and an important logistical base for the US-led war in Iraq. On June 14, 2006, Turkish foreign ministry officials told reporters: "The Turkish government and state never played a part [in the secret transfers] ... and never will." According to evidence, the US base was a transit stop in taking detainees to secret prisons. The cable also stated: "We recommend that you do not raise this issue with TGS [Turkish general staff] pending clarification from Washington on what approach state/OSD/JCS/NSC [national security council] wish to take."
Iraq (territorial integrity) Turkey is particularly cautious about a Kurdish state arising from a destabilized Iraq. Turkey has fought an insurgent war against the PKK, which is listed as a terrorist organization internationally by
a number of states and organizations. Iraq was a safe haven for PKK. The Iraqi Kurds were organized under the PUK and KDP, who later cooperated with American forces during the
2003 invasion of Iraq. In 2002
Morton I. Abramowitz (1989–1991 US Ambassador) said, in regards to Turkey's involvement in an upcoming war: "It is hard to believe that in the end the Turks would not cooperate with the United States if war takes place, with or without UN blessing". Vice President
Dick Cheney's only trip abroad in his first three years at the office was a four-day trip to Ankara. Prime Minister
Bülent Ecevit welcomed Cheney to a working dinner on March 19, who offered $228 million to aid in military efforts provided that international military operations took command of the Afghanistan peacekeeping force. Turkey's position on Iraq was presented to Cheney. In December 2002, Turkey moved approximately 15,000 soldiers to its border with Iraq. The
2003 invasion of Iraq faced strong
domestic opposition in Turkey: opinion polls showed that 80% of Turks were opposed to the war. The Turkish Parliament's position reflected the public's. The March 1, 2003, motion at the
Turkish Parliament could not reach the absolute majority of 276 votes needed to allow US troops to attack Iraq from Turkey (62,000 troops and more than 250 planes), the final tally being 264 votes for and 250 against. BBC's Jonny Dymond said the knife-edge vote is a massive blow to the government which has a majority in parliament. On March 11, Abdullah Gül resigned as Turkey's Prime Minister.
Chief of the General Staff of Turkey Hilmi Özkök said "Turkey would suffer the effects of the war [motion also included twice as many Turkish troops to be deployed to northern Iraq]." The US did not immediately re-deploy the forces intended for staging in Turkey and the State Department asked for "clarification" of the Turkish vote. In connection with its invasion of Iraq, the United States requested that Turkey allow 62,000 soldiers to deploy from its territory and that 9 Turkish air bases allow United States bombers to deploy. Tension developed when the Turkish government agreed to the request, but parliament rejected it on March 1, 2003. The unit station was a historical Ottoman Empire facility (dwelling), which held the historical archives of the Ottoman Empire. Among the destroyed documents were the deed records of the region. The hood event was strongly condemned by the Turkey's newspapers and referred to Americans as "
Rambos" and "
Ugly Americans".
Chief of the General Staff of Turkey Hilmi Özkök declared the incident as the sign of "crisis of confidence" between the US and Turkey. In response, Bush stated that he did not believe it was in Turkey's interests to send troops into Iraq.
Operation Sun was executed February 21–29, 2008.
Russia (Natural Gas, Nuclear Energy) Turkey's fourth attempt at building a nuclear reactor, in 2002, was driven by concerns over dependence on Russian gas for electric generation. US companies did not produce any bids. In fact, Turkey received only bid—from
Rosatom. The bid was rejected partly due to defeating the dependency problem. Turkey's build-own-transfer approach failed. After the 2016 failed coup,
during Obama administration, it was speculated that Gülen planned to return to Turkey like
exiled Khomeini. The
Gülen movement, followers of Gülen, is a
sub-sect of
Sunni Islam based on a
Nursian theological perspective as reflected in Fethullah Gülen's religious teachings. Gülen movement's possible involvement in the
Ergenekon plot (trials) is controversial. The investigation claimed to study an organization compared to
Counter-Guerrilla. The accused were declared to be the "
deep state in Turkey." The
Ergenekon trials were a series of high-profile trials that began on October 20, 2008, in which 275 people, including military officers, journalists, and opposition lawmakers, all alleged members of Ergenekon, were accused of plotting against the Erdogan government. The trials resulted in lengthy prison sentences for most of the accused. The US Secretary of State reported on the Turkish investigation into the Ergenekon network and concluded that "the details of the case were murky, however, and Ergenekon's status as a terrorist organization remained under debate at year's end." Obama gave impassioned and eloquent speeches in Turkey (
Obama visit) and Cairo (
A New Beginning).
Middle Eastern foreign policy of the Obama administration was a strategic "rebalancing" away from extensive military commitments as a shift from the post-9/11 policies of George W. Bush. In this period, Turkey and President Obama faced the Middle Eastern dysfunctional state systems and fraying civil societies, as well as blowback from George W. Bush's invasions. President Obama's speeches were seen as the advent of a new era. However,
Foreign Minister Ahmet Davutoğlu said that
2013 was the year that would shape relations between Turkey and the US over the coming decades. According to Davutoglu, Obama's responses to the breach of his red lines (
Ghouta chemical attack) and acceptance of the coup in
Egypt (
2013 Egyptian coup d'état) worked for the narratives of extremists, encouraged atrocities, also signaled to our (NATO) adversaries that they can count on the US's inaction at places like
Crimea (
Russian occupation of Crimea). At the end of the Obama administration, signs of strain emerged when Obama refused to hold a formal meeting with Erdoğan during the latter's visit to the United States in March 2016.
War on terror The 2009
U.S. Secretary of State's
Country Report on Terrorism confirmed that cooperation against terrorism is a key element in America's strategic partnership with Turkey, before going on to praise Turkish contributions to stabilize Iraq and Afghanistan and highlighting the strategic importance of the
İncirlik Air Base used by both U.S. and NATO forces for operations in the region. Turkey had opposed the appointment of
Anders Fogh Rasmussen as NATO secretary general due to his approach to the
Muhammed carricaturs in Denmark until Obama assured a Turk would be one of Rasmussen deputies. The U.S. Secretary of State's report also contained information on the
PKK and other terrorist groups operating in Turkey, whom the U.S. and Turkish authorities share intelligence on, highlighting the September 12, 2006, attack on
Diyarbakır and the July 27, 2008, attack on Güngören.
Arab Spring (Turkish model, Gazi Park) Turkish model refers to the idea of Turkey as a potential model for other Muslim-majority countries, particularly in the Middle East, combining a democratic government (
Secularism in Turkey) with an Islamic identity (
Conservatism in Turkey). Respectively represented by
Atatürk's reforms and Erdogan's
Justice and Development Party (Turkey). Particularly early on
Obama administration, there was some discussion and hope that Turkey could serve as a positive example of a modern, democratic, and predominantly Muslim nation. Hugh Pope—The Wall Street Journal — wrote that “crowns the rediscovery of the strategic value of Turkey” after Prime Minister
Bülent Ecevit's 2002 Washington visite which showcased Turkey's laicism as an effective way to combat Islamic radicalism. Failure of the Turkish model in the American point of view during Obama years, as
Center for American Progress summary points out, was Turkey's relationship with the American-ally Kurdish militia, YPG, (Turkey's nomenclature PKK subsidiary group), or "Lack thereof." Another breakpoint with the Obama administration, Turkey cut ties with Gaddafi only after extending a hand to him and asking him to be exiled in Turkey in which he refused.
Killing of Muammar Gaddafi occurred on October 20, 2011, after the Battle of Sirte.
Iran (nuclear deal, arms embargo, oil trading controversy) In May 2009, after parliamentary debates in Belgium and Germany called for the removal of the nuclear weapons stationed in their military bases, questions were subsequently raised over the reportedly continuing presence of
B61 nuclear bombs stationed at the
Incirlik Air Base as part of
NATO's
nuclear sharing program.
Bilkent University Professor Mustafa Kibaroğlu speculated that if the Obama administration would have pressed for the withdrawal of these weapons, which Turkey wished to maintain, then Turkey-U.S. relations could have been strained. In October 2009, President Obama sent a proposal (nuclear deal framework) to Erdoğan during the heated discussions in the U.S. on nuclear weapons in Turkey. However, before the completion of the framework, Turkish and Iranian diplomats were discussing a preliminary nuclear deal, which would be named the Tehran Declaration. In April 2010, while Turkish and Iranian diplomats were working on a deal, Washington stepped up its efforts to impose a new round of sanctions on Iran over its nuclear program (
Comprehensive Iran Sanctions, Accountability, and Divestment Act of 2010). Iran agreed to the "Tehran Declaration" after China and Russia were in accord with the prepared UN sanctions on Iran (declared as a
tactical move). In May 2010, non-permanent members of the Security Council Turkey and Brazil announced the "Tehran Declaration." The U.S. discarded the agreement because "it did not address the continued production of uranium enriched to 20 percent inside Iranian territory." Turkey, India and China opposed the adoption of a new round of sanctions, claiming the "Tehran Declaration" could be improved, rather than discarded. Opposition in the U.S. condemned the move, with claims that Turkey is not in the Western camp. On August 17, 2010, a separate report presented to Obama by the
U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom, which had previously urged him to raise the subject of religious freedom during his 2009 presidential visit to Turkey, concluded that Turkey's interpretation of secularism "resulted in violations of religious freedoms for many of the country's citizens, including members of the majority and, especially, minority religious communities". Obama said that future arms sales would depend on Turkish policies. Following the discredited Tehran Declaration and sanctions on Turkey, the progress on the issue stopped until the change of government in Iran. Iranian President
Hassan Rouhani signaled a change and opened the way for nuclear talks. On April 2, 2015, the
Iran nuclear deal framework was signed five years after the Tehran Deal. Instead of the Turkey-Brazil initiative for the "Tehran Deal", the pact was signed between
Iran and the
P5+1 countries. Why were Turkey and Brazil involved in the Iranian Nuclear issues? The
Turkish Energy, Nuclear and Mineral Research Agency managed the
nuclear power in Turkey. In putting together the fuel-swap deal, Turkey was trying to defend the autonomy of non-nuclear weapons states (NNWS) to enrich uranium for producing electricity and strengthen the right of NNWS to develop peaceful nuclear activities. The Obama administration sanctioned Turkey albeit for different reasons than Iran. In 2013, Russian nuclear construction company
Atomstroyexport and Turkey signed a construction agreement for the "
Akkuyu Nuclear Power Plant". Turkey did not fall into the Iranian situation. The whole operation is Russian built, owned, and operated (
build–own–operate) such that even the spent fuel (
high-level waste) returned to Russia. Instead of the US partnering with Turkey, leaving Turkey to the Russia's help for the NNWS will affect
Russia–Turkey relations by prolonging Turkey's dependence on Russian energy, beyond
natural gas. It was a critical disconnect among NATO allies. Before November 2013 US-led nuclear sanctions passed
Halkbank between March 2012 and July 2013 purchased gold on the open market. November 2013 sanctions prevented Iran from being paid in dollars, but gold was never mentioned in the sanctions regime. Halkbank exchanged gold for Iranian oil (oil trading controversy). October 18, 2015,
Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action canceled the sanctions in question. In March 2017, the deputy head
Halkbank, Mehmet Hakan Atilla, was arrested by the US government for conspiring to evade sanctions against Iran by helping
Reza Zarrab, an Iranian-Azeri businessman who had taken Turkish citizenship, "use U.S. financial institutions to engage in prohibited financial transactions that illegally funneled millions of dollars to Iran". Zarrab was in
Miami, Florida, in March 2016. Atilla's trial commenced in New York City federal court in November 2017, with Zarrab agreeing to testify after reaching a plea deal with prosecutors. In early 2018, Atilla was convicted on five of six counts against him, including bank fraud and conspiracies and acquitted on one count after four days of jury deliberation.
Syria (Civil War, territorial integrity, safe zone, Rat Line, YPG) Turkey was particularly cautious about a Kurdish state arising from a destabilized Syria. Turkey has fought an insurgent war against the PKK, which is listed as a terrorist organization internationally by a number of states and organizations. Until 2011, Turkey's policy was trying to preserve a neutral but constructive position because civil war and sectarian conflicts would threaten Turkey's security. Eventually war broke and Syria (
refugees,
spillover) impacted Turkey more directly than other
actors in the conflict. meets with
Selahattin Demirtaş Between 2011 and 2012, Turkey absorbed 120,000
Syrian refugees, 90,000 of whom are in camps. In September 2012, Turkey asked from US to establish "
safe zones" with Turkey in northern Syria to accommodate refugees and reduce the number of civilian casualties. Gen.
Philip Breedlove to
United States Senate Committee on Armed Services said Syria was
weaponizing migration. In 2015, U.S. senators called for humanitarian safe zones in Syria, Obama administration declined. In 2016, during the
European migrant crisis, Merkel asked the same question. Obama said Syrian safe zones won't work. Beginning in 2012, Turkey and the United States supported the "
Syrian opposition" which held the idea of replacing the
Assad regime. In early 2012,
Seymour Hersh reported that the
CIA cooperated with Turkey in a covert operation named "the Rat Line", which obtained and transported armaments from Libya to rebel groups (later known as the
Free Syrian Army (FSA)) in Syria via proxies and
front organizations in southern Turkey. The CIA's involvement reportedly ended after the mass evacuation of CIA operatives from the American consulate in Benghazi, Libya, after the
2012 Benghazi attack. In January 2014, the
House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence reported specifically on "the CIA annex at Benghazi", that "all CIA activities in Benghazi were legal and authorized. On-the-record testimony establishes that the CIA was not sending weapons ... from Libya to Syria, or facilitating other organizations or states that were transferring weapons from Libya to Syria." While the Obama administration
investigated the Benghazi attack in January 2014, the
National Intelligence Organisation scandal in Turkey broke out. In May 2014, the
editor-in-chief of the
Cumhuriyet Can Dündar published pictures of agents and trucks, and was later sentenced for ″leaking secret information of the state″. In October 2014, Vice President
Joe Biden accused Turkey of funding
al-Nusra and
al Qaeda (FSA-identified groups), to which Erdoğan angrily responded, "Biden has to apologize for his statements" adding that if no apology is made, Biden would become "history to [him]". Biden subsequently apologized. In 2015, the
International Business Times wrote that the US sent weapons shipments to FSA-identified groups through a CIA program for years.
Timber Sycamore was a classified weapons supply and training program run by the CIA and supported by some Arab intelligence services, such as the security service in
Saudi Arabia. It launched in 2012 or 2013 and supplied money, weaponry and training to rebel forces. According to US officials, the program has trained thousands of rebels. In July 2017,
H. R. McMaster, National Security Adviser to President
Donald Trump and CIA Director
Mike Pompeo, decided to terminate the program. On August 20, 2012, Obama used the "
Red line" in relation to
chemical weapons. On the one-year anniversary of Obama's red line speech, the
Ghouta chemical attacks occurred.
John McCain said the red line was "apparently written in disappearing ink", due to the perception the red line had been crossed with no action. At the same time,
United States Central Command (CENTCOMM) approached the
YPG. Turkey-US relations began showing signs of deterioration, particularly over the handling of the YPG. Some groups held the idea of "Syrian Balkanization" ("division of the country") in which they promoted
federalizing Syria on ethnic and religious-sectarian lines,
Constitution of the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria. The American forces in the Syrian Civil War openly allied with the Kurdish YPG fighters and supported them militarily. The YPG was criticized by Turkey for its alleged support to the PKK, especially since a
rebellion in southern Turkey began in 2015. In early October 2015, shortly after the start of the
Russian military intervention in Syria, Obama was reported to have authorized the resupply of 25,000 YPG militia. Erdoğan stated that he had asked Obama not to intervene on the side of the YPG: "I told Mr. Obama, 'Don't drop those bombs [meaning weapons and other supplies]. You will be making a mistake.' Unfortunately, despite our conversation, they dropped whatever was needed with three C-130's and half of it landed in [IS'] hands. So who is supplying [ISIL], then?" Erdogan also opposed any arrangements in Syria that would mirror the Iraqi Kurds'
de facto state in northern Syria. He told reporters on January 26, 2015: "What is this? Northern Iraq? Now [they want] Northern Syria to be born. It is impossible for us to accept this. ... Such entities will cause great problems in the future." According to General
Raymond A. Thomas (at the time head of the
United States Special Operations Command (USSOCOM)) at the
Aspen Security Forum in July 2017, the SDF (established October 10, 2015) is a
PR-friendly name for the YPG, which Thomas personally suggested because the YPG is considered an arm of the PKK. On February 1, 2016, Brett McGurk officially visited SDF commander
Ferhat Abdi Şahin (also known as General
Mazloum Kobani), after the
Siege of Kobanî. In response, Erdoğan said: "How can we trust you? Is it me that is your partner or is it the terrorists in Kobani?" After Kobani, General Allen and Brett McGurk worked on Tal Abyad. Turkey did not permit flying off of a Turkish airbase. McGurk said: "So the picture that developed while General Allen and I were spending most of these months in Ankara is that something was not on the level [the U.S. allied with Turkey's enemy]." Turkey overtly defied American orders of ceasing Turkey's military bombardment of the YPG fighters in their bid to take the town of
Azaz in northern Syria. In summary, during the Obama years, Turkey developed its policy towards Syria in two stages. The first stage was by itself. The second stage was with the US, which was unsuccessful. However, during obama years, Turkey was unwilling to act unilaterally toward Syria. • Tried to persuade Assad to reform. Cut the diplomatic ties. Supported regional and international political solutions. Support and aid Syria's political and armed opposition. • Asked Obama in support of direct military intervention, such as a no-fly zone or humanitarian corridor for the refugees. (Obama administration rejected) The Obama administration did not respond to the idea that the
Rojava conflict, which the Obama administration associated itself with, provided a launch pad for Turkish Kurdish separatists toward Turkey and might raise questions about Turkey's territorial integrity. On March 22, 2013, Netanyahu apologized for the incident in a 30-minute telephone call with Erdoğan, stating that the results were unintended; the Turkish prime minister accepted the apology and agreed to enter into discussions to resolve the compensation issue. It was Turkey that set the course for terminating the alliance with Israel.
Armenia (Genocide, Normalization) During his Ankara visit, Obama urged Turkey to come to terms with its past and resolve its Armenian issues. During the
2008 US presidential election, he had criticized former US President George W. Bush for his failure to take a stance and stated that the "Armenian genocide is not an allegation, a personal opinion, or a point of view, but rather a widely documented fact supported by an overwhelming body of historical evidence". The U.S. responded positively with a statement from the office of
U.S. Vice President Joe Biden following a phone conversation with
Armenian President Serzh Sargsyan, which stated that "the Vice President applauded President Sargsyan's leadership, and underscored the administration's support for both Armenia and Turkey in this process". Turkish columnists, however, criticized the timing of the announcement, and believed it to have been made to placate Obama in advance of his April 24 speech, with Fikret Bila writing in the
Milliyet that "the Turkish Foreign Ministry made this statement regarding the roadmap before midnight", as it would allow Obama to go back on his campaign promise to refer to the incident as genocide, which the Turkish government profusely denied, by pointing out to the Armenian diaspora that "Turkey reached a consensus with Armenia and set a roadmap" and "there is no need now to damage this process".
Gülen movement (coup d'état attempt) The
AKP–Gülen movement conflict is a major Turkey–United States relations. In the evening of July 15, 2016, a fraction attempted a
coup d'état,
2016 Turkish coup attempt, in Turkey. In a speech on July 29, 2016, President Erdoğan accused CENTCOM chief
Joseph Votel of "siding with coup plotters" after Votel accused the Turkish government of arresting the Pentagon's contacts in Turkey. In late July 2016, Turkish prime minister
Binali Yıldırım told
The Guardian: "Of course, since the leader of this terrorist organisation is residing in the United States, there are question marks in the minds of the people whether there is any U.S. involvement or backing. Turkey's
Anadolu Agency report chief prosecutor's office launched an investigation into 17 U.S.-based individuals, including Senate Democratic Leader Chuck Schumer, former U.S. Attorney Preet Bharara and ex-CIA director John Brennan, for their alleged links to cleric Fethullah Gulen.
Yeni Şafak, a Turkish pro-government newspaper, claimed that the former commander of
NATO forces in Afghanistan, now-retired U.S. Army General
John F. Campbell, was the "mastermind" behind the coup attempt in Turkey.
First Trump administration (2017–2021) Due to perceptions that former US Secretary of State and Democratic Party presidential nominee
Hillary Clinton is friendly towards the
Gülen movement, many Erdoğan supporters reportedly favored Republican Party presidential nominee
Donald Trump in the United States' 2016 presidential election. The Turkish government had a generally warm relationship with the Trump administration, backing the Trump administration's stance against
Antifa groups during the
George Floyd protests, and condemning restrictions placed on Trump's social media accounts as "digital fascism".
Saudi Arabia (Khashoggi) The
assassination of Jamal Khashoggi, a
Saudi dissident, journalist for
The Washington Post, and former general manager and editor-in-chief of
Al-Arab News Channel, occurred on October 2, 2018, at the Saudi
consulate in
Istanbul, Turkey, and was perpetrated by agents of the Saudi Arabian government. Government officials of Turkey believe Khashoggi was murdered with premeditation. Anonymous Saudi officials have admitted that agents affiliated with the Saudi government killed him. CIA Director
Gina Haspel traveled to Turkey to address the investigation. Haspel's visit came before a planned speech by Erdoğan. She listened to audio purportedly capturing the sound of saw on a bone. On November 20, US President
Donald Trump rejected the CIA's conclusion that Crown Prince
Mohammed bin Salman had ordered the killing. He issued a statement saying "it could very well be that the Crown Prince had knowledge of this tragic event — maybe he did and maybe he didn't" and that "in any case, [their] relationship is with the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia".
Qatar (diplomatic crisis) On June 5, 2017, Turkey (
Qatar–Turkey relations) supported Qatar in its
diplomatic confrontation with a
Saudi and
Emirati-led bloc of countries that severed ties with and imposed sanctions on Qatar. US (
Qatar–United States relations) was on the Saudi side which argued on the basis of
Qatar and state-sponsored terrorism. Turkey criticized the list of demands released by the Saudi and Emirati-led bloc on June 22, stating that they undermine Qatar's sovereignty. In December 2017, for defense of US position, US national security advisor General H.R. McMaster said that Turkey had joined Qatar as a prime source of funding that contributes to the spread of extremist ideology of
Islamism: "We're seeing great involvement by Turkey from everywhere from western Africa to Southeast Asia, funding groups that help create the conditions that allow terrorism to flourish." On June 26, 2024, H.R. McMaster and
Ahmet Üzümcü (Turkish diplomat, former permanent representative to NATO) rehash the same issues at "Turkey: A Strained & Critical Alliance" discussion for the Turkey's work in advancing peace and prosperity relation to fight against ISIS.
Syria (Clashes at the Turkish Ambassador's Residence, Refugees, Pull-out, Barisha raid) The
clashes at the Turkish Ambassador's Residence in Washington, D.C. broke out on May 16, 2017, between Turkey's
Police Counter Attack Team and a crowd of protesters, some of whom carried flags of the
Democratic Union Party (Syria) (a left-wing Syrian branch of the
Kurdistan Workers Party). On May 16, 2017
John McCain and
Claire McCaskill called for the expulsion (
unwanted person) of the Turkish ambassador
Serdar Kılıç for the embassy brawl. The
Trump travel ban actions include two
executive orders for restrictions on citizens of seven (first executive order) or six (second executive order)
Muslim-majority countries. A third action, done by
presidential proclamation, restricts entry to the U.S. by citizens from eight countries, six of which are predominantly Muslim. During and after his election campaign Trump proposed establishing safe zones in Syria as an alternative to Syrian refugees' immigration to the US. In the past, "safe zones" have been interpreted as establishing, among other things, no-fly zones over Syria. During the Obama administration Turkey encouraged the U.S. to establish safe zones; the Obama administration was concerned about the potential for pulling the U.S. into a war with Russia. In the first few weeks of Trump's presidency, Turkey renewed its call for safe zones and proposed a new plan for them. The Trump administration spoke with several other Sunni Arab States regarding safe zones, and Russia has asked for clarification regarding any Trump administration plan regarding safe zones. In December 2018, Trump announced "We have won against ISIS", and ordered the withdrawal of all troops from Syria. The next day, Mattis resigned in protest, calling his decision an abandonment of the U.S.'s
YPG allies. In November 2018, Trump said he would not approve any extension of the American deployment in Syria. House of Representatives condemned Trump's decision. On October 23, 2019, President Trump ordered the withdrawal of U.S. troops from the Syrian-Turkish border to southeastern Syria for enabling Turkey to set up
a new "Buffer Zone". According to two anonymous American officials, the Central Intelligence Agency obtained original intelligence on Baghdadi following the arrests of one of his wives and a courier. The arrest of al-Baghdadi's top aide Ismael al-Ethawi was the key: al-Ethawi was found and followed by informants in Syria, apprehended by Turkish authorities, and handed over to the Iraqi intelligence to whom he provided information in February 2018. In 2019, US, Turkish, and Iraqi intelligence conducted a joint operation in which they captured several senior ISIL leaders who provided the locations where they met with Baghdadi inside Syria. According to
Voice of America, the fate of al-Baghdadi "was sealed by the capture of his aide". Turkish and US military authorities exchanged and coordinated information ahead of the attack in Barisha, Harem District, Idlib Governorate, Syria. President Trump thanked Russia, Turkey, Syria, and Iraq for aiding US operation, and praised Erdoğan, claiming that he is "a big fan", a "friend of [his]" and "a hell of a leader."
Gülen Movement (extradition – Flynn – Brunson – Visa & Tariff) In July 2016, after the
failed coup attempt, Turkey demanded that the United States government extradite
Fethullah Gülen, a cleric and Turkish national living in the U.S. state of
Pennsylvania. However, the US government demanded that Turkey had to produce evidence of Gulen's connection with the coup attempt. On July 19, an official request was sent to the US for the extradition of Fethullah Gülen. Senior U.S. officials said this evidence pertained to certain pre-coup alleged subversive activities. On November 8, 2016,
The Hill published an op-ed by Flynn stating that US ally Turkey was in crisis and needed US support on the day of the
2016 United States presidential election. Flynn called for the US to back Erdoğan's government and alleged that the regime's opponent
Fethullah Gülen, who is a Pennsylvania-based opposition cleric and the leader of the
gulen movement whose members were
purged in Turkey because of the
2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt, headed a "vast global network" that fit "the description of a dangerous
sleeper terror network". Flynn, who was specialized in US counterterrorism strategy and dismantling insurgent networks, argued Gulen falls into radical Islamist groups aligned with Seyed Qutb and Hasan al Bana and he finished his article stating "running a scam". On March 8, 2017, four months after the publication, General Flynn filed documents with the Federal government indicating consulting work that might have aided the government of Turkey. The
Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation) ("Crossfire Razor" – a counterintelligence investigation on Flynn) was taken over by the
Mueller special counsel investigation (May 17, 2017). Flynn was part of Mueller's special counsel investigation. In 2017, the special counsel,
Robert Mueller, began probing whether Michael Flynn was part of an alleged plot to kidnap the cleric for Turkey. Trump transition aide
Bijan Kian played key role in Flynn's connection to the case. Federal investigators probing the lobbying work of national security adviser Michael Flynn are focused in part on the role of Bijan Kian. In 2017, FBI investigated whether Fethullah Gulen skimmed money from
charter schools in the US.
Gülen movement schools is a network of more than 150 U.S. charter schools (as of 2017). Gulen-linked educational institutions (schools in varying categories, and classifications) are sizable with 300 in Turkey and over 1,000 worldwide.
Serkan Golge, a naturalized US citizen, was jailed in Turkey for three years on charges of participating in terrorism and conspiring against the government as a member of the Gülen movement. Metin Topuz, a US consulate employee, was charged with having links to Gülen and was arrested under "terror charges" by an Istanbul court. Topuz was the second US government employee in Turkey to be arrested in 2017. Pastor
Andrew Brunson was charged with terrorism and espionage during the
purges that followed the
2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt. The U.S-based Christian group
Voice of the Persecuted took up the Brunsons’ cause, as had opposition Parliament members in Turkey and other Protestant pastors in the largely Muslim nation. The United States suspended all non-immigrant visas from Turkey "indefinitely" due to Topuz's arrest. Turkey retaliated against the US with suspensions of all US visas, including tourist visas, shortly after the US State Department made their announcement. On August 1, 2018, the US Department of Treasury imposed sanctions on Justice minister
Abdulhamit Gül and interior minister
Suleyman Soylu, who were involved in the detention of Brunson.
Daniel Glaser, the former Treasury official under Obama, said: "It's certainly the first time I can think of" the U.S. sanctioning a
NATO ally. On August 10, 2018, Trump imposed punitive tariffs against Turkey after an impasse over Brunson's imprisonment and other issues. On August 10, 2018, Trump tweeted that he would double tariffs (
first Trump tariffs) on Turkish steel and aluminum using the "
Section 232" which was imposed on countries whose exports threaten to impair national security. Markets responded and the lira plunged. Depending on the calculation nearly 40% year to date or 20% just after the tweet.
Michael Klein said "It's not like the United States caused this, but there's probably some element of the trade spat [signaling to] investors and Turkish residents that things were not going to get better." With both internal structural weaknesses and US sanctions Turkey's economy fall into
Turkish economic crisis (2018–current). Later in December 2022, the WTO ruled against the United States saying that there was no national security emergency that justified US invocation of the exception The move prompted Erdoğan to say that the United States was "[ex]changing a strategic NATO partner for a pastor" and that the US' behavior would force Turkey to look for new friends and allies. The presidential spokesperson,
İbrahim Kalın, tweeted that the US is losing Turkey, and that the entire Turkish public is against U.S. policies. Turkey went on to say that it would retaliate against the raising of steel and aluminium tariffs by the U.S. administration (The US had already imposed 10 percent and 25 percent additional tariffs on aluminum and steel imports respectively from all countries on March 23, 2018, but on August 13, 2018, it added additional tariffs on steel imports from Turkey). Erdoğan said that Turkey will boycott electronic products from the US, using
iPhones as an example. The
Keçiören Municipality in the
Ankara decided not to issue business licenses to American brands including
McDonald's,
Starbucks and
Burger King. In addition, Turkey decided to increase tariffs on imports of a range of US products, On August 20, 2018, there were gunshots at the USA Embassy in Ankara. No casualties were reported and Turkish authorities detained two men as suspects.
Greece (Aegean dispute) In 2018, the
CFR recommended "US needs to develop alternatives to
Incirlik Air Base. The use of the base to advance U.S. interests is no longer assured." The
Aegean dispute is a set of interrelated controversies over sovereignty and related rights in the region of the Aegean Sea. The United States ambassador Geoffrey Pyatt stated that all the islands have the same rights to EEZ and continental shelf as the mainlands do which is disputed. In 2021, a new agreement the "Greek-American Mutual Defense Cooperation Agreement" permitted the US military to use Georgula Barracks in Greece's central province of Volos, Litochoro Training Ground, and army barracks in the northeastern port city of Alexandroupoli apart from the naval base in
Souda Bay in Crete which the US has been operating since 1969.
Armenia (Genocide Recognition, Nagorno-Karabakh War) In 2019, the
United States Congress, with sponsors from Saudi Arabia, issued official recognition of the
Armenian genocide, which was the first time the United States has officially acknowledged the genocide, having previously only unofficially or partially recognized the genocide. Turkey, which has traditionally denied that such genocide existed, blasted the United States for inflaming tensions. Donald Trump has rejected the resolution by Congress, citing that his administration's stance on the issue had not changed.
Eliot Engel, chairman of the House Foreign Affairs Committee, called the influence of third party actors like Turkey "troubling" at the
2020 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict. In a letter to Secretary of State Pompeo, Senate Foreign Relations Committee ranking member
Bob Menendez, Senate Minority Leader
Chuck Schumer, and several other lawmakers called for the Trump administration to "immediately suspend all sales and transfers of military equipment to Ankara." As for the result, relations between the United States to Turkey and Azerbaijan further worsened, with Turkey accused the United States of sending weapons and supplies to Armenia, which Washington denied. On October 15, 2020, Secretary of State
Mike Pompeo urged both sides to respect the humanitarian ceasefire and stated, "We now have the Turks, who have stepped in and provided resources to Azerbaijan, increasing the risk, increasing the firepower that's taking place in this historic fight."
Air Defense (Patriot — S-400, F35, CAATSA) The US had leverage with Turkey as Turkey's military security was largely dependent on its Western ally. Turkey depended on the US for control of its airspace. Turkey has long pursued air control radars and missile defense systems. US
Patriots that were allocated to the defense of Turkey were removed on August 16, 2015 Russia claimed U.S. knew the flight path of the Sukhoi Su-24 and it was an issue between two NATO partners, two U.S. officials claimed there was no such information. Turkey got serious about acquiring a missile defense system early in the first Obama administration. Turkey put up a bid, which included
MIM-104 Patriot. Chinese air defense was the winning system in 2013. In 2015, Turkey reversed its position to acquire
China's FD-2000 long-range air defense missile system. The Chinese reportedly refused Ankara's technology transfer demands. In 2013, US did not part with valuable MIM-104 Patriot intellectual property. When Erdogan confronted (2017) "They give tanks, cannons and armored vehicles to the terror organization but we can't procure some of our needs, although we want to pay the price." Turkey, a NATO member since 1952, reportedly saw that Russian technology transfer available. Turkey transferred the money for
S-400 missile system on September 12, 2017. Bloomberg reported "permission" of the sale of Patriot systems to Turkey as a breakthrough on December 18, 2018. Turkey received its first installment of the Russian S-400 missile defense system on July 12, 2019, just short of six months of the US breakthrough. The patriots were offered to replace Russian ordinance was US$3.5 billion while Turkey paid US$2.5 billion for S-400m. In February 2019, Russia had an advance supply contract with
Saudi Arabia for the S-400,
Qatar was in "advanced" talks with Russia for the S-400, The US threatened Turkey with
CAATSA sanctions over Turkey's decision to buy the S-400 missile defense system from Russia. On July 22, 2019, Turkey claimed to retaliate against the "unacceptable" threat of US sanctions over Turkey's purchase of Russian S-400 missile defenses. On February 5, 2020, the US halted a secretive military intelligence cooperation program with Turkey against the
Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK). On December 14, 2020, the US imposed
Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act. The sanctions included a ban on all U.S. export licenses and authorizations to SSB and an asset freeze and visa restrictions on Dr. Ismail Demir, SSB's president, and other SSB officers. Subsequently, doubts were raised by a number of international policy analysts that military sanctions on the
NATO ally would weaken the alliance, effectively reducing Turkey's ability to obtain American technology for regional defense. For this reason, the incoming
Biden administration would likely hold off on sanctions to normalize relations.
Biden administration (2021–2025) In August 2020, Democratic presidential nominee
Joe Biden called for a new U.S. approach to the "autocrat" President Erdoğan and support for Turkish opposition parties. On May 22, 2022, after the US embassy issued a warning that police might respond violently to an opposition gathering in Istanbul, Turkey's foreign relations ministry summoned Ambassador Jeff Flake. In October 2021, in the wake of the appeal for the release of Turkish activist
Osman Kavala signed by 10 Western countries, Turkish president
Recep Tayyip Erdoğan ordered his foreign minister to declare the US ambassador
persona non grata, alongside the other 9 ambassadors. However, the ambassadors did not receive any formal notice to leave the country and Erdoğan eventually stepped back.
Russia (Russo-Ukrainian War, Grain Deal, Truce) In
Russo-Ukrainian War US supported Ukraine and sanctioned Russia; however, the conflict brought challenges to Turkey in balancing its relations with both Ukraine and Russia, with implications for US-Turkey ties. Turkey in addition to denouncing Russia's invasion, and closing the Straits to belligerent warships (including US warships) supplied Ukraine with various types of military equipment—including armed drone aircraft and mine-resistant ambush-resistant (MRAP) vehicles—as well as humanitarian assistance. Turkey-Ukraine close ties was a response to mutual interests in countering Russian influence (they are also part of
Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation) in the
Black Sea region and in sharing military technology to expand and increase the self-sufficiency of their respective defense industries. On the other hand, Turkey rejected the US economic sanctions against Russia and did not close its airspace to Russian civilian flights. President Biden expressed consent for Turkey and the United Nations to develop parallel agreements with Russia and Ukraine to provide a Black Sea corridor for Ukrainian grain exports in solving the global supply concerns. The
Black Sea Grain Initiative was achieved by Turkey as it regulates access to the
Turkish Straits through the
Montreux Convention Regarding the Regime of the Straits, so by the virtue of its strategic position has the power to mediate between the parties on various issues of contention.
Greece (Aegean dispute, Cyprus–Turkey maritime zones dispute) Devlet Bahçeli claimed US bases pose "a threat to our security." "America is using the Greek side as a pawn ... The subject of 12 islands is our wound that has not yet healed. They have been unjustly usurped from Turkey by foot tricks", Bahçeli reiterated. Erdoğan suspended dialogue with Greek Prime Minister Kyriakos Mitsotakis after Mitsotakis appeared to raise concern about the possible sale of 40 new F-16Vs to Turkey, while addressing a May 2022 joint session of the U.S. Congress. In Turkey's view, the Greek islands close to Anatolia do not provide a
contiguous maritime border between Greece and Turkey, especially in the area between
Rhodes and
Kastellorizo, which are
78 miles apart, when the maximum internationally recognized limit for a contiguous maritime border claim is 12 miles (the 1923
Treaty of Lausanne was signed in a period when national
territorial waters were limited to 3 miles). Turkey responded to its exclusion from the "3+1" initiative by signing the
Libya (GNA)–Turkey maritime deal.
Palestine (Hamas, Peace talks) On October 7, 2023,
Turkish support for Hamas changed position following the
October 7 attacks. The Turkish government asked the members of Hamas to leave the country, after pictures and videos of the terrorist attacks began to be published and broadcast by the international media. Hamas leader
Ismail Haniyeh and other top officials were “politely sent away.” On October 9, 2023, Blinken posted on X: "I encouraged Türkiye's advocacy for a cease-fire and the release of all hostages held by Hamas immediately." After protests from Israel, Blinken decided to delete his tweet which called for a cease-fire in the 2023
Gaza war. On October 25, 2023, Turkey changed position once again following reports of the "humanitarian tragedy in the Gaza Strip", and in Erdoğan's words, Hamas was now "protecting its land and people". In 2024, Erdoğan and the AKP government in Turkey promoted the position that Hamas needs to be part of the political process. On November 18, 2024, the United States warned Turkey against harboring Hamas leaders.
Israel (Normalization, Gaza War, NATO) After the
previous rupture in 2010, multiple U.S. administrations worked to put the pieces of the relationship back on track between two key allies. A hot conflict between these two U.S. allies would almost certainly take the Israel-Turkey relationship across the rubicon of reparability, which in turn could trigger unresolvable problems for U.S.-Turkey relations. Erdoğan and Netanyahu met for the first time in person at the United Nations headquarters in
New York City on September 20, 2023. They were slowly improving ties strained by disputes over Israel's policies toward the Palestinians. Following the handshake of the leaders, Israel's media reported an upcoming visit by Erdoğan to Israel, with a pilgrimage to the
Al-Aqsa Mosque. Turkey stated that the cooperation between NATO and Israel could continue only after an end to the conflict. Relations between Turkey and Israel, a major ally of the United States, continued to deteriorate. A
Pew Research poll in 2024 showed that 85% of Turks were dissatisfied with the way the U.S. president, Joe Biden, handled the
Israel's war in Gaza.
Armenia (Genocide Recognition, Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, Normalization) Presidential candidate and former Vice President
Joe Biden demanded that Turkey "stay out" of the
Nagorno-Karabakh conflict between
Armenia and
Azerbaijan, in which Turkey has supported the Azerbaijanis. On December 15, 2021, U.S. Secretary of State
Antony Blinken announced that the U.S. supports the normalization process between Armenia and Turkey.
Genocide (Armenian, Uygur, Gaza) On October 27, 2020, the
U.S. Senate designated the
persecution of Uyghurs in China's
Xinjiang autonomous region as genocide. On January 19, 2021, incoming U.S. president Joe Biden's
secretary of state nominee
Antony Blinken was asked, and he contended, "That would be my judgment as well." On April 24, 2021,
Armenian Genocide Remembrance Day, President
Joe Biden referred to the massacre of the Armenians during the Ottoman Empire in 1915 as "genocide" in a statement released by the White House. Turkey has long practiced a policy of denial against the Armenian Genocide, and Biden's move was refuted by President Erdogan as "groundless" and opening a "deep wound" in U.S.-Turkey relations. On February 9, 2024,
Turkish Foreign Minister
Hakan Fidan said that the international community's silence on
Israel's actions in
Gaza were "complicity in
genocide".
Economic Development (Iraq Development Road, Zangezur corridor) President Joe Biden and his allies announced a plan to build a rail and shipping corridor. The
India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor is a planned economic corridor that aims to bolster economic development by fostering connectivity between Asia, the Persian Gulf and Europe. The
Iraq Development Road is an undergoing project aiming to connect Asia with Europe. In September 2023, IMEEC criticised by Turkey as the existing but underdeveleoped Iraq-Turkey connection already present viable-established but underutilized corridor which could reach its potential with the
Iraq Development Road. The project was envisaged to bolster the current connection through the Persian Gulf with Europe through a railway and highway via ports in the
United Arab Emirates,
Qatar, and
Iraq, including the under-construction
Grand Faw Port. The
Zangezur corridor became a flash point since the end of the
Second Nagorno-Karabakh War. Azerbaijan and Turkey have been promoting this trade route to connect Azerbaijan to
Nakhchivan through
Armenia's
Syunik Province. Armenia steadily objected to this connection. The contention between Azerbaijan and Armenia extent to the terminology, the potential routes, and the modes of transport. After Armenian forces blocked the Zangezur corridor in 2023,
American Enterprise Institute scholar
Michael Rubin called Biden to act, On May 18, 2022, the U.S. brought the issue of listing the PYD and YPG (defined as "allies" by the United States in the war against ISIS, but viewed by Turkey as affiliates of the outlawed PKK) and the Gülen movement as "terrorist organizations" to the table for clarification. Regarding the aforementioned US-Turkey discussions, President Erdoğan stated that "neither country has an open, clear stance against [the mentioned] terrorist organizations. We cannot say 'yes' to those who impose sanctions on Turkey [during our fight against our enemy], on joining NATO, which is [essentially] a security organization." According to Russian media reports (never officially confirmed by Ankara) Turkey requested
BRICS membership. If admitted, Turkey would become a part of the first significant counterweight (navigating to multipolarity) to the U.S.-led global order.
Air Defense (S400, F-35, F-16C) , which operates one of the largest fleets of F-16C/D aircraft in the world, produced under license by
Turkish Aerospace Industries (TAI). Turkey plans to acquire 40 new F-16V aircraft. During the first Trump administration, on October 2, 2020, House majority-minority leaders and Senate Foreign Relations Committee ranking member
Bob Menendez, along with other senators, suspended all sales and transfers of advanced military equipment to Ankara. As a result, Turkey faced issues in
exporting the helicopters to Pakistan. The hold-up had also involved Ankara's overflight disputes with Athens over the Aegean Sea. This dispute was resolved with the approval for the sale of F-35A fighter jets to Greece. In December, when the final version of the FY2023 NDAA (P.L.117-263) was passed, it excluded a House-passed condition on F-16 sales to Turkey related to potential overflights above Greek islands in the Aegean Sea. Regarding the slowrolling of the issue by the Congress, in January 2024, Chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, Democrat
Ben Cardin, stated that the approval for the sale of 40 new F-16V fighter jets and 79 upgrade kits to Turkey was contingent on Turkey's approval for
Sweden's
accession to NATO. A letter to the Congress at the same time stated that if unable to upgrade its F-16 fleet, Turkey might consider purchasing
Eurofighter Typhoon aircraft. However, Erdoğan seized the moment to give his presidential approval for Sweden's NATO membership on January 25, 2024. flies into position to make contact with the boom of a
USAF KC-135 Stratotanker assigned to the
134th Air Refueling Wing during
Exercise Trident Juncture 2018 near
Kallax Air Base,
Sweden, October 29, 2018. Senator
Bob Menendez, who had earlier expressed his opposition to the sale of F-16Vs to Turkey, stated that he still maintained this view despite the Sweden-Turkey deal over the former's NATO membership, brokered by President Biden. On March 21, 2024, Bob Menendez announced that due to federal corruption charges (including bribery, extortion, honest services fraud, obstruction of justice, and conspiracy) he would not run in the Democratic primary. He later resigned from the Senate, and was subsequently sentenced to 11 years in prison following his conviction on bribery and corruption charges on January 29, 2025. On June 6, 2024, the Turkish government signed a letter of acceptance (LOA) for the acquisition of 40 new F-16V aircraft. opting instead to upgrade all of its Block 30, Block 40 and Block 50 aircraft with the domestically produced kits that were developed under the F-16 "Özgür" and "Özgür-2" upgrade programs. On November 27, 2024, the Turkish government announced that the Turkish Air Force also intends to order 40 new F-35A aircraft, if a deal can be reached with the United States regarding the crisis caused by Turkey's purchase of the S-400 air defense system from Russia. The United States has so far presented two solutions to Turkey: On March 19, 2022, the U.S. proposed Turkey to deliver its Russian-made S-400 missile defence systems to Ukraine, in order to assist it in fighting the invading Russian forces. Two years later, during a visit to Turkey on July 1–2, 2024,
Celeste Wallander, the Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs, and
Michael R. Carpenter, special advisor to the President and Senior Director for Europe at the
U.S. National Security Council, proposed stationing the S-400 missile systems at the U.S.-controlled sector of
Incirlik Air Base, in exchange for reinstating Turkey in the F-35 fighter jet program. Both of these proposals have so far been rejected by the Turkish government.
Second Trump administration (2025–present) Syria (territorial integrity, return of refugees) At the first phone call between the two leaders, Turkey stressed the importance of lifting restrictions on Syria to start the reconstruction work for the
return of refugees of the Syrian civil war. On January 25, 2025, Turkey clarified its position to EU at the joint news conference with visiting EU foreign policy chief
Kaja Kallas in Ankara. Foreign Minister Hakan Fidan's call for resolution was: Turkey awaits US action. President Donald Trump said on 14 January 2026 that countries that do business with Iran will face a new 25% tariff. This includes Turkey which imports 16% of Iran's goods to as of 2023.
Russo-Ukrainian War (Truce, Straits) President Erdoğan has expressed his willingness to collaborate with President Trump in achieving a truce that will end the Russia-Ukraine war. On October 22, 2025, the United States imposed
sanctions against Russia's largest oil companies
Rosneft and
Lukoil. The U.S. also threatened
secondary sanctions against foreign financial institutions and companies that continue to do business with Rosneft and Lukoil, which would affect their customers in Turkey.
Palestine (Öztürk) Rubio and Turkish Foreign Minister Hakan Fidan met on March 25, 2025. Turkey emphasized the importance of stability in Syria and the Balkans, while discussing efforts to end the Russia-Ukraine war and the need for a ceasefire in Gaza. Turkey asked the U.S., using its influence on Israel, to address the need for increased efforts for a permanent ceasefire in the Gaza Strip, as adequate humanitarian aid into the region is in dire condition. In 2025, several Turkish students in the U.S. faced visa revocations and detentions, including an incident involving a student at the
University of Minnesota. While some cases were officially linked to legal infractions, others were seen as part of a crackdown on
pro-Palestinian activism, a policy Trump had campaigned on. The move drew criticism from university officials and raised concerns about the chilling effect on international education and student exchanges between the two countries.
Israel (Truce, Gaza Peace Summit) Egypt, Qatar, and the United States brokered the
2025 Israel–Hamas war ceasefire, with
President-elect Trump's active involvement. The first phase took effect on January 19, 2025, a day before President Trump's
inauguration. President Erdoğan called on the international community to fulfill its responsibilities toward ending the suffering of innocent civilians. The
2025 Gaza Peace Summit on October 13, 2025, in
Sharm El Sheikh, following an agreement to implement the first phase of the
Gaza peace plan, although representatives for Israel and Hamas were absent. Egyptian President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi, Donald Trump, Qatari Emir Sheikh
Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani, and Recep Tayyip Erdogan all signed a joint declaration known as the "Trump Declaration for Enduring Peace and Prosperity."
Air Defense (CAATSA) On January 25, 2025, Minister of Foreign Affairs
Hakan Fidan stated that Turkey wanted all sanctions, but importantly, those under
Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act to be removed. == Military relations ==