Medieval Europe After the fall of Rome (in roughly 476), many of the literary approaches and styles invented by the Greeks and Romans fell out of favor in Europe. In the
millennium or so that intervened between Rome's fall and the
Florentine Renaissance, medieval literature focused more and more on faith and faith-related matters, in part because the works written by the Greeks had not been preserved in Europe, and therefore there were few models of classical literature to learn from and move beyond. Although much had been lost to the ravages of time (and to catastrophe, as in the burning of the Library of Alexandria), many Greek works remained extant: they were preserved and copied carefully by Muslim scribes. What little there was became changed and distorted, with new forms beginning to develop from the distortions. Some of these distorted beginnings of new styles can be seen in the literature generally described as
Matter of Rome,
Matter of France and
Matter of Britain. Around 400 AD, the
Prudenti Psychomachia began the tradition of allegorical tales. Poetry flourished, however, in the hands of the
troubadours, whose courtly romances and
chanson de geste amused and entertained the upper classes who were their patrons. The
First Crusade in 1095 also affected literature. For instance the image of the
knight would take on a different significance. The
Islamic emphasis on scientific investigation and the preservation of the Greek philosophical writings would also affect European literature.
Hagiographies, or "lives of the
saints", were frequent among early medieval European texts. The writings of
Bede—
Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum—and others continue the faith-based historical tradition begun by Eusebius in the early 4th century. Between Augustine and
The Bible, religious authors had numerous aspects of Christianity that needed further explication and interpretation.
Thomas Aquinas, more than any other single person, was able to turn
theology into a kind of science, in part because he was heavily influenced by Aristotle, whose works were returning to Europe in the 13th century. Playwriting essentially ceased, except for the
mystery plays and the
passion plays that focused heavily on conveying Christian belief to the common people.
Latin continued to be used as a
literary language in medieval Europe. Though it was also spoken, it was primarily learned and expressed through literature, and scientific literature was typically written in Latin. Christianity became increasingly prominent in medieval European literature, also written in Latin. Religious literature in other languages proliferated during the 13th century as those who were not educated in Latin sought religious literature that they could understand. Women in particular were not permitted to learn Latin, and an extensive body of religious literature in many languages was written by women at this time.
Medieval England Early medieval literature in England was written in
Old English, which is not mutually intelligible with modern English. Works of this time include the epic poem
Beowulf and
Arthurian fantasy based on the legendary character of
King Arthur. Literature in the modern English language began with
Geoffrey Chaucer in the 14th century, known for
The Canterbury Tales.
Medieval Italy The Divine Comedy by
Dante Alighieri was completed circa 1321. Organized into three parts called
cantiche,
Divine Comedy is a narrative poem that is regarded as a preeminent work in Italian literature. It follows Dante's journey into three different realms of the dead,
Inferno (
Hell),
Purgatorio (
Purgatory), and
Paradiso (
Paradise), with the Roman poet
Virgil and
Beatrice, Dante's idealized woman, guiding him. Though
Divine Comedy was largely ignored by the literary world during and a while after its publication, it gained further acclaim in the English-speaking world after British
Romanticist poet William Blake and other 19th century Romanticist writers "rediscovered" the poem, influencing later writers such as
T.S. Eliot and
Ezra Pound. The narrative reflects the medieval philosophy of the afterlife as it existed in the 14th century
Western Church as well as established the
Tuscan language as the standard
Italian language.
The Decameron by
Giovanni Boccaccio was published in 1351, and it influenced European literature over the following centuries. Its framing device of ten individuals each telling ten stories introduced the term
novella and inspired later works, including Chaucer's
Canterbury Tales.
Islamic world '' The most well known fiction from the Islamic world was
The Book of One Thousand and One Nights (
Arabian Nights), which was a compilation of many earlier folk tales told by the
Persian Queen
Scheherazade. The epic took form in the 10th century and reached its final form by the 14th century; the number and type of tales have varied from one manuscript to another. This epic has been influential in the West since it was translated in the 18th century, first by
Antoine Galland. Many imitations were written, especially in France.
Arabic literature Persian literature Ferdowsi's
Shahnameh, the national epic of
Iran, is a mythical and heroic retelling of
Persian history and the longest epic poem ever written. From
Persian culture the book which would, eventually, become the most famous in the west is the
Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam. The Rubáiyát is a collection of poems by the
Persian mathematician and astronomer
Omar Khayyám (1048–1122). "Rubaiyat" means "quatrains": verses of four lines.
Amir Arsalan was also a popular mythical Persian story. Examples of early Persian proto-
science fiction include
Al-Farabi's
Opinions of the residents of a splendid city about a
utopian society, and elements such as the
flying carpet.
Ottoman literature Post-classical Hebrew literature Medieval Jewish fiction often drew on ancient
Jewish legends, and was written in a variety of languages including
Hebrew and
Judeo-Arabic.
Liturgical Jewish poetry in Hebrew flourished in Palestine in the seventh and eighth centuries with the writings of
Yose ben Yose,
Yannai, and
Eleazar Kalir Later Jewish poets in Spain, Provençal, and Italy wrote both religious and secular poems in Hebrew; particularly prominent poets were the Spanish Jewish poets
Solomon ibn Gabirol and
Yehuda Halevi. In addition to poetry and fiction, medieval Jewish literature also includes
philosophical literature,
mystical (Kabbalistic) literature,
ethical (musar) literature,
legal (halakhic) literature, and
commentaries on the Bible.
Medieval India Sanskrit declines in the early 2nd millennium, late works such as the
Kathasaritsagara dating to the 11th century, to the benefit of literature composed in
Middle Indic vernaculars such as
Old Bengali,
Old Hindi.
Mid-imperial China Sui and Tang dynasties (13th century)
Lu Sidao, , and
Yang Su were notable poets of the early
Sui dynasty, with Yang moving away from the dominant traditions of Southern poetry. In the Sui and early
Tang dynasties, literature was supported by the various emperors, who commissioned many works and wrote some of their own. Poetry in this period followed the Palace Style until it diverged with the work of the
Four Paragons.
Wang Changling and
Li Bai are recognized among the great poets of High Tang. Landscape poetry and frontier poetry were both influential during the Tang dynasty. Tang poetry also included
cí, a type of lyric poetry. Chinese poetry increased focus on politics, human suffering, and realism in the mid-Tang dynasty, such as in the works of
Du Fu. Chinese poetry diverged into two schools in the early-9th century; poets such as
Meng Jiao and
Han Yu wrote about the unusual, while poets such as
Bai Juyi and
Yuan Zhen emphasized simplicity. The final years of the Tang dynasty saw the rise of
lyric poetry and
erotic poetry.
Li Shangyin and
Wen Tingyun were influential poets during this period. Fictional narrative became prominent in the Tang dynasty, written with looser restrictions on form and length. Fiction in the mid-Tang period focused primarily on social commentary and romantic love, and notable authors during this time included
Shen Jiji and Yuan Zhen. Collections of stories became more common in the Late Tang period, particularly those of chivalrous tales by authors such as
Pei Xing. Popular literature of the time included transformation text, vernacular story,
sutra, song, and rhapsody. The style of prose was not initially developed during the Tang dynasty. Parallel prose remained popular in the early Tang dynasty, though writers such as Li Bai moved away from strict form that was common at the time. Han Yu promoted the use of classical prose in the style of ancient Confucisionist works. Printing began in Tang dynasty China. A copy of the
Diamond Sutra, a key
Buddhist text, found sealed in a cave in China in the early 20th century, is the oldest known dated printed book, with a printed date of 868. The method used was
block printing.
Song and Jin dynasties Printing first became widespread in the
Northern Song. Northern Song lyric poetry was developed by
Yan Shu,
Liu Yong, and
Zhang Xian, and it became a popular pastime among the lower class.
Ouyang Xiu developed the popular style of lyric poetry while
Yan Jidao developed the refined style. Lyric poetry contrasted with the more formal
shi poetry that followed canonical literary forms and was used by scholars. Political pressures heavily influenced the poetry of scholars in the Northern Song, as proficiency in older styles was a requirement for scholars to enter into civil service. Politics and Confucianism in particular increasingly influenced poetry in Northern Song. Poets such as
Mei Yaochen and
Su Shunquin developed the style of poetry used in the Middle Northern Song.
Ouyang Xiu was a prominent literary scholar in Northern Song that refined the mainstream literary style of the time, and
Su Shi is said to have perfected it.
Chen Yuyi defined the style of Early Southern Song poetry.
Lu You was a poet in the Middle Southern Song that wrote extensively about political life in civil service and frustration with the dynasty's weakened position in the
Jin–Song Wars, while
Xin Qiji was a Middle Southern Song poet that wrote on similar topics from a military perspective. Poetic style did not advance significantly in the Late Southern Song, though
Yan Yu's
Canglang Shihua was influential in poetic theory. Classical poetry in the Early Jin emphasized emotion, while elegance was emphasized later in the Jin dynasty. Popular fiction was typically performed in the Song dynasty, made up primarily of small talk fiction and historical tales. Classical prose fiction in the Song dynasty often sacrificed linguistic quality and imagination for plain language and moral teaching.
Zaju variety plays developed during the Song dynasty as a predecessor to drama. The scientist, statesman, and general
Shen Kuo (1031–1095 AD) was the author of the
Dream Pool Essays (1088), a large book of scientific literature that included the oldest description of the magnetized
compass. During the Song dynasty, there was also the enormous historical work of the
Zizhi Tongjian, compiled into 294 volumes of 3 million written
Chinese characters by the year 1084 AD. The
Jin dynasty saw advances in popular literature, including
Romance of the Western Chamber.
Yuan dynasty Drama was significantly developed as a literary form in the
Yuan dynasty and made up much of the era's fictional works. Variety plays were influential in the Early Yuan period, with
Khanbaliq, present-day
Beijing, as the cultural center of variety plays. As the 14th century began, variety play writers moved to
Hangzhou, though variety plays declined and they did not achieve the same prominence. The
nanxi was developed as a genre of play at the same time, reflecting the unique political life of the Yuan dynasty in which civil service,
infidelity, and inter-clan politics all played a major role.
Tale of the Pipa by
Gao Ming was an influential
nanxi drama.
Qu was a common type of poetry in the Yuan dynasty that was used both as a standalone work and part of the structure of a play. Two of the earliest Chinese novels,
Romance of the Three Kingdoms and
Water Margin, first appeared in the Yuan dynasty. Poetry in the Yuan dynasty remained the primary form of expression for classical writers, though the Song tradition of intellectual poetry was replaced by poetry that expressed strong emotion. Northern Yuan poetry was influenced by the works of
Yuan Haowen while Southern Yuan poetry was influenced by Yan Yu.
Classical and feudal Japan '' Japanese literature first diverged from Chinese literature around the eighth century.
Fudoki were eighth century records that were typically written in Chinese and documented both historical and mythological stories. Folk ballads were also common, including those recorded in the
fudoki and musical ballads. These ballads were written to be chanted and often had a syllabic structure, with the
tanka being highly regarded in particular. The writing of
waka poetry became increasingly important in the Heian period as it became a necessary skill for the aristocracy in both social and courtship settings. The ''
Man'yōshū is the oldest collection of Japanese poetry, written in Japanese with Chinese characters through Man'yōgana and compiling waka
poetry from the fifth to eighth centuries. The Kokin Wakashū was a collection of ninth century waka
poetry compiled by imperial command. While the Man'yōshū
was varied in the classes and professions of its writers, the poems of the Kokin Wakashū
were limited to those of aristocratic poets. The Tales of Ise'' is a collection of loosely connected poems and narratives based on the life of
Ariwara no Narihira.
Utsubo Monogatari and
Ochikubo Monogatari were early prose works from the 10th century that realistically portrayed the lives of the aristocracy, and the former is sometimes considered to be the first full-length novel. At the same time, women of the aristocracy began keeping diaries that followed aristocratic life.
The Tale of Genji was the next major prose work in Japan, written in the 11th century. Its use of realism and romantic idealization inspired later works of Heian period prose fiction, including historical works such as
Eiga Monogatari and
Ōkagami; romantic novels such as ''
, Yoru no Nezame, Hamamatsu Chūnagon Monogatari, and Torikaebaya Monogatari; and short story collections such as Tsutsumi Chūnagon Monogatari. While these stories typically portrayed the aristocracy, Konjaku Monogatarishū was written in the 12th century, compiling roughly one thousand stories from different walks of life in Japan, China, and India. Japanese literature expanded beyond the aristocracy in the 13th century and became increasingly accessible to lower classes, often through the narration of religious texts such as The Tale of the Heike by blind priests. In the 14th and 15th centuries, poetry such as renga and drama such as noh and kyōgen'' was written by professional writers under the patronage of the court, temples, or local lords.
Southeast Asia The literary tradition of
Java and the
Kawi language is most well known for
kakawin poetry. These were narrative poems based on the traditions of
Sanskrit poetry, and they often incorporated religious elements. The oldest surviving
kakawin is
Kakawin Ramayana from the 9th century, a Javanese localization of the Sanskrit
Bhaṭṭikāvya.
Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica Mesoamerican literature was typically recorded on
codices, though most surviving codices of pre-Columbian literature were written in the Latin alphabet to preserve oral tradition after colonization.
Nahuatl literature was divided into , which included song and poetry, and , which included prose works of history and discourses. The were divine hymns that were sung to praise the gods, while other Nahuatl poetry was sung in celebration of life and friendship, to honor warriors, or to pose philosophical questions. King
Nezahualcoyotl of
Tetzcoco was a notable poet and songwriter. ==Early modern (15th century–18th century)==