Africa During the post-classical era,
Africa was both culturally and politically affected by the introduction of Islam and the Arab empires. This was especially true in the north, the
Sudan, and the east coast. However, this conversion was not complete nor uniform among different areas, and the low-level classes hardly changed their beliefs at all. Prior to the migration and conquest of Muslims into Africa, much of the continent was dominated by diverse societies of varying sizes and complexities. These were ruled by kings or councils of elders who would control their constituents in a variety of ways. Most of these peoples practiced spiritual, animistic religions. Africa was culturally separated between Saharan Africa (which consisted of
North Africa and the
Sahara Desert) and
sub-Saharan Africa (everything south of the Sahara). Sub-Saharan Africa was further divided into the Sudan, which covered everything north of
Central Africa, including
West Africa. The area south of the Sudan was primarily occupied by the
Bantu peoples who spoke the
Bantu language. From 1100 onward,
Christian Europe and the
Islamic world became dependent on Africa for gold. After approximately 650 urbanization expanded for the first time beyond the ancient kingdoms
Aksum and
Nubia. African civilizations can be divided into three categories based on religion: • Christian civilizations on the
Horn of Africa • Islamic civilizations which formed in the
Niger River Valley and on the
Swahili Coast •
Traditional societies which adhered to
native African religions Sub-Saharan Africa was part of two large, separate trading networks, the
trans-Saharan trade that bridged commerce between West and North Africa. Due to the huge profits from trade native African Islamic empires arose, including those of
Ghana, Mali, and Songhai. In the 14th century,
Mansa Musa of Mali may have been the wealthiest person of his time. Within Mali, the city of
Timbuktu was an international center of science and well known throughout the Islamic world, particularly from the
University of Sankoré. East Africa was part of the
Indian Ocean trade network, which included both Arab ruled Islamic cities on the East African Coast such as
Mombasa and traditional cities such as
Great Zimbabwe which exported gold, copper and ivory to markets in the Middle East, South Asia, and Southeast Asia.
Europe '' who worked in exchange for military protection. After the
Black Death of the 1340s, a labor shortage caused serfs to demand wages for their labor. In Europe, Western civilization reconstituted after the
fall of the Western Roman Empire into the period now known as the
Early Middle Ages (500–1000). The Early Middle Ages saw a continuation of trends begun in
late antiquity: depopulation, deurbanization, and increased
barbarian invasion. From the 7th until the 11th centuries,
Arabs,
Magyars, and
Norse were all threats to the Christian Kingdoms that killed thousands of people over centuries. Raiders however, also created new trading networks. In 800, the
Germanic king
Charlemagne was crowned Emperor by
Pope Leo III, the
first western Roman emperor since Romulus Augustus was captured and deposed more than 300 years earlier. The conflict-filled relationship between the
Catholic Church and temporal (mostly Germanic) monarchs would become the single most important political fact of European history for the next 500 years. The stability of Charlemagne's reign stimulated a brief revival of cultural activity known as the
Carolingian Renaissance. The
Holy Roman Empire would last for almost a millennium until its dissolution during the
Napoleonic Wars in the early 19th century. In Eastern Europe, the
Eastern Roman Empire survived in what is now called the Byzantine Empire, which created the
Code of Justinian that inspired the legal structures of modern European states. Overseen by
Eastern Orthodox emperors, in the 9th–10th centuries the Byzantine Eastern Orthodox Church Christianized the
First Bulgarian Empire and
Kievan Rus', the cultural and political ancestors to modern-day
Bulgaria and
North Macedonia, on the one hand, and
Russia and
Ukraine, on the other.
Byzantium flourished as the leading power and trade center in its region in the
Macedonian Renaissance until it was overshadowed by
Italian city-states and the Islamic Ottoman Empire near the end of the Middle Ages. , in
Boblice Poland.
Medieval European castles were centers of
feudal power. Later in the period, the creation of the
feudal system allowed greater degrees of military and agricultural organization. There was sustained
urbanization in
northern and
western Europe. Later developments were marked by
manorialism and
feudalism, and evolved into the prosperous
High Middle Ages. After 1000 the Christian kingdoms that had emerged from Rome's collapse changed dramatically in their cultural and societal character. During the High Middle Ages (c. 1000–1300),
Christian-oriented art and architecture flourished and the
Crusades were mounted to recapture the
Holy Land from
Muslim control. The influence of the emerging
nation-state was tempered by the ideal of an international
Christendom and the presence of the
Catholic Church in all western kingdoms. The codes of
chivalry and
courtly love set rules for proper behavior, while the
Scholastic philosophers attempted to reconcile faith and reason. The age of Feudalism would be dramatically transformed by the cataclysm of the
Black Death and its aftermath. This time would be a major underlying cause for the Renaissance. By the turn of the 16th century European or
Western civilization would be engaging in the
Age of Discovery. The term "Middle Ages" first appears in Latin in the 15th century and reflects the view that this period was a deviation from the path of classical learning, a path supposedly reconnected by
Renaissance scholarship.
West and Central Asia The Arabian Peninsula and the surrounding
Middle East and
Near East regions saw dramatic change during the post-classical era caused primarily by the spread of
Islam and the establishment of the Arab
caliphates. In the 5th century, the Middle East was separated by empires and their spheres of influence; the two most prominent were the Persian
Sasanian Empire, centered in what is now
Iran, and the
Byzantine Empire in
Anatolia (modern-day
Turkey). The Byzantines and Sasanians fought with each other continually, a reflection of the rivalry between the Roman Empire and the Persian Empire seen during the previous five hundred years. The fighting weakened both states, leaving the stage open to a new power. Meanwhile, the nomadic
Bedouin tribes who dominated the Arabian desert saw a period of tribal warfare for scarce resources and a familiarity with Abrahamic religions or monotheism. While the Byzantine and Sasanian Empires were both weakened by the
Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628, a new power in the form of
Islam grew in the Middle East under
Muhammad in Medina. In a series of rapid
Muslim conquests, the
Rashidun army, led by the caliphs and skilled military commanders such as
Khalid ibn al-Walid, swept through most of the Middle East, taking more than half of Byzantine territory in the
Arab–Byzantine wars and completely engulfing Persia in the
Muslim conquest of Persia. It would be the Arab caliphates of the
Middle Ages that would first unify the entire Middle East as a distinct region and create the dominant ethnic identity that persists today. These caliphates included the
Rashidun,
Umayyad, and
Abbasid Caliphates, along with the later Turkic-based
Seljuk Empire. made advances in
medicine. After Muhammad introduced Islam, it jump-started Middle Eastern culture into an
Islamic Golden Age, inspiring achievements in
architecture, the revival of old advances in science and technology, and the formation of a distinct way of life. Muslims saved and spread Greek advances in
medicine,
algebra,
geometry,
astronomy,
anatomy, and
ethics that would later find their way back to Western Europe. The dominance of the Arabs came to a sudden end in the mid-11th century with the arrival of the Seljuk Turks, migrating south from the Turkic homelands in Central Asia. They conquered Persia, Iraq (capturing Baghdad in 1055), Syria, Palestine, and the
Hejaz. This was followed by a series of Christian Western Europe invasions. The fragmentation of the Middle East allowed joint European forces mainly from
England,
France, and the emerging
Holy Roman Empire, to enter the region. In 1099 the knights of the
First Crusade captured
Jerusalem and founded the
Kingdom of Jerusalem, which survived until 1187, when
Saladin retook the city. Smaller crusader fiefdoms survived until 1291. In the early 13th century, a new wave of invaders, the armies of the
Mongol Empire, swept through the region, sacking Baghdad in the
siege of Baghdad and advancing as far south as the border of
Egypt in what became known as the
Mongol conquests. The Mongols eventually retreated in 1335, but the chaos that ensued throughout the empire deposed the Seljuk Turks. In 1401, the region was further plagued by the
Turko-Mongol,
Timur, and his ferocious raids. By then, another group of Turks had arisen as well, the Ottomans.
South Asia There has been difficulty applying the word "medieval" or "post-classical" to the history of South Asia. This section follows historian Stein Burton's definition that corresponds from the 8th century to the 16th century, more or less following the same time frame of the post-classical period and the European Middle Ages. constructed by
Rajendra Chola. Until the 13th century, there was no less than 20 to 40 different states on the Indian subcontinent which hosted a variety of cultures, languages, writing systems and religions. At the beginning of the time period
Buddhism was predominant throughout the area with the short-lived
Pala Empire on the
Indo-Gangetic Plain sponsoring the faith's institutions. One such institution was the Buddhist
Nalanda mahavihara in modern-day
Bihar, a center of scholarship that brought the divided South Asia onto the global intellectual stage. Another accomplishment was the invention of the
Chaturanga game which later was exported to Europe and became
chess. In
South India, the
Hindu kingdom of
Chola gained prominence with an overseas empire that controlled parts of modern-day Sri Lanka, Malaysia, and
Indonesia as oversees territories and accelerated the spread of
Hinduism into the historic culture of these places. In this time period, neighboring areas such as
Afghanistan,
Tibet, and
Myanmar were under
South Asian influence. From 1206 onward, a series of Turkic invasions from modern-day Afghanistan and Iran conquered massive portions of
North India, founding the
Delhi Sultanate which remained supreme until the 16th century.
Buddhism declined in South Asia vanishing in many areas but Hinduism survived and reinforced itself in areas conquered by
Muslims. In the far south, the
Vijayanagara Empire was not conquered by any Muslim state in the period. The turn of the 16th century would see the rise of a new Islamic empire – the
Mughals and the establishment of European trade posts by the
Portuguese.
Southeast Asia From the 8th century onward,
Southeast Asia stood to benefit from the trade taking place between South Asia and East Asia, numerous kingdoms arose in the region due to the flow of wealth passing through the
Strait of Malacca. While Southeast Asia had numerous outside influences including Indian and Chinese Civilization, local cultures strove to cement their own unique identities. North Vietnam (known as Dai Viet) was culturally closer to China for centuries due to conquest. Since rule from the third century BCE, North Vietnam continued to be subjugated by Chinese states, although they continually resisted periodically. There were three periods of
Chinese domination that spanned near 1100 years. The Vietnamese gained long lasting independence in the 10th century when China was
divided with
Tĩnh Hải quân and the successor
Đại Việt. Nonetheless, even as an independent state a sort of begrudging
Sinicization occurred. South Vietnam was governed by the ancient Hindu
Champa Kingdom but was
annexed by the Vietnamese in the 15th century. The spread of Hinduism, Buddhism, and maritime trade between China and South Asia created the foundation for Southeast Asia's first major empires; including the
Khmer Empire from Cambodia and
Srivijaya from Indonesia. During the Khmer Empire's height in the 12th century the city of
Angkor Thom was among the largest of the pre-modern world due to its water management. King
Jayavarman II constructed over a hundred hospitals throughout his realm. Nearby rose the
Pagan Empire in modern-day Burma, using elephants as military might. The construction of the Buddhist
Shwezigon Pagoda and its tolerance for believers of older polytheistic gods helped
Theravada Buddhism become supreme in the region. In Indonesia,
Srivijaya from the 7th through 14th century was a
thalassocracy that focused on maritime city states and trade. Controlling the vital choke points of the
Sunda and Malacca Straits it became rich from trade ranging from Japan through Arabia. at the Bayon. Champa was a major rival of the Khmer Empire. Southeast Asian battles were often fought on rivers. Gold, ivory, and ceramics were all major commodities traveling through port cities. The empire was also responsible for the construction of wonders such as
Borobudur. During this time Indonesian sailors crossed the
Indian Ocean; evidence suggests that they may have colonized
Madagascar. Indian culture spread to the
Philippines, likely through Indonesian trade resulting in the first documented use of writing in the archipelago and Indianized kingdoms. Over time, changing economic and political conditions elsewhere and wars weakened the traditional empires of Southeast Asia. While the Mongol invasions did not directly annex Southeast Asia, the war-time devastation paved way for the rise of new nations. In the 14th century the Khmer Empire was uprooted by persistent years of war - losing the functionality and engineering knowledge of its advanced water management system. Srivijaya was overtaken by the
Majapahit. Islamic missionaries and merchants arrived eventually leading to Islamization in Indonesia.
East Asia painting of the
imperial examinations, which gave citizens the opportunity to be employed by the imperial government of China through
meritocracy. The time frame of 500–1500 in East Asia's history and China in particular has been proposed as a possible classification for the region's history within the context of global post-classical history. Discussions within Columbia University's Association of Asian studies have postulated that similarities between China and other regions of Eurasia during post-classical times have often been overlooked. Typically the English language histography of Japan postulates that its 'medieval period' began as late as 1185. During this period the Eastern empires continued to expand through trade, migration and conquests of neighboring areas.
Japan and
Korea went under the process of voluntary Sinicization, or the impression of Chinese cultural and political ideas.
Korea and
Japan sinicized because their ruling class were largely impressed by China's bureaucracy. The major influences China had on these countries were the spread of Confucianism, the spread of Buddhism, and the establishment of centralized governance. Throughout East Asia, Buddhism was most visible in monasteries and local educational institutions and Confucianism remained the ideology of social cohesion and state power. In the times of the
Sui,
Tang, and
Song dynasties (581–1279), China remained the world's largest economy and most technologically advanced society.
Inventions such as gunpowder, woodblock printing, and the magnetic compass were improved upon. China stood in contrast to other areas at the time as the imperial governments exhibited concentrated central authority instead of feudalism. China exhibited much interest in
foreign affairs during the Tang and Song dynasties. From the 7th through the 10th centuries, Tang China was focused on securing the
Silk Road as the selling of its goods westwards was central to the nation's economy. For a time China successfully secured its frontiers by integrating their nomadic neighbors - the
Göktürks - into their civilization. The Tang dynasty expanded into Central Asia and received tribute from countries as distant as Eastern Iran. Western expansion ended with
wars with the Abbasid Caliphate and the deadly
An Lushan Rebellion which resulted in a deadly but uncertain death toll of millions. After the collapse of the Tang dynasty and subsequent
civil wars came the second phase of Chinese interest in foreign relations. Unlike the Tang, the Song specialized in overseas trade and peacefully created a maritime network, and China's population became concentrated in the south. Chinese merchant ships reached Indonesia, India, and Arabia. Southeast Asia's economy flourished from trade with Song China. , inspired by
Da Ming Hunyi Tu, showing East Asian knowledge of world geography. With the country's emphasis on trade and economic growth. Song China's
economy began to use machines to manufacture goods and coal as a source of energy. The advances of the Song in the 11th/12th centuries have been considered an early
industrial revolution. Economic advancements came at the cost of military affairs and the Song became open to invasions from the north. China became divided as Song's northern lands were conquered by the
Jurchen people. By 1200, there were five Chinese kingdoms stretching from modern day Turkestan to the Sea of Japan including the
Western Liao,
Western Xia,
Jin,
Southern Song, and
Dali. Because these states competed with each other they all were eventually annexed by the rising
Mongol Empire before 1279. After seventy years of
conquest, the Mongols proclaimed the
Yuan dynasty and also subjugated
Korea; they failed to conquer
Japan. Mongol conquerors also made China accessible to
European travelers such as
Marco Polo. The Mongol era was short lived due to plagues and famine. After the
revolution in 1368, the succeeding
Ming dynasty ushered in a period of prosperity and brief
foreign expeditions before isolating itself from global affairs for centuries.
Korea and
Japan however continued to have relations with China and with other Asian countries. In the 15th century
Sejong the Great of Korea cemented his country's identity by creating the
Hangul writing system to replace use of
Chinese characters. Meanwhile, Japan fell under military rule of the
Kamakura and later
Ashikaga Shogunate dominated by the
samurai.
Oceania {{Gallery , which was used by Polynesians to navigate through wind and water currents.|alt=Micronesian navigational chart Separate from developments in
Afro-Eurasia and the Americas the region of greater
Oceania continued to develop independently of the outside world. In
Australia, the society of
Aboriginal Australians changed little through the post-classical Period since their arrival in the area from Africa around 50,000 BCE. The only evidence of outside contact were encounters with fishermen of
Indonesian origin.
Polynesian and
Micronesian peoples are rooted from Taiwan and Southeast Asia and began their migration into the
Pacific Ocean from 3000 to 1500 BCE. After the 4th century, the Micronesians and Polynesians began to explore the South Pacific and later constructed cities in previously uninhabited areas including
Nan Madol Muʻa and others. Polynesians on
outrigger canoes
discovered and colonized some of the last uninhabited islands of earth. In exploring and settling, Polynesian settlers did not strike at random but used their knowledge of wind and water currents to reach their destinations. , a restored
heiau in the U.S. state of
Hawaii, used as sacred temple and sacrificial altar. The statues represent traditional gods. On the settled islands some Polynesian groups became distinct from one another, a significant example being the
Maori of New Zealand. Other island systems kept in contact with each other, including
Hawaii and the
Tahiti, goods in long-distance trade included basalt, and Pearl shell. Other colonizing groups adapted to accommodate to the ecology of specific islands such as the
Moriori of the
Chatham Islands. Europeans on their voyages visited many Pacific islands in the 16th and 17th century, but most areas of Oceania were not colonized until after the
voyages of British explorer
James Cook in the 1780s.
Americas The post-classical era of the Americas can be considered set at a different time span from that of Afro-Eurasia. As the developments of Mesoamerican and Andean civilization differ greatly from that of the Old World, as well as the speed at which it developed, the post-classical era in the traditional sense does not take place until near the end of the medieval age in Western Europe. As such, for the purposes of this article, the
Woodland period and
Classic stage of the Americas will be discussed here, which takes place from about 400 to 1400. For the technical post-classical stage in American development which took place on the eve of European contact, see
Post-Classic stage.
North America As a continent there was little unified trade or communication. Advances in agriculture spread northward from
Mesoamerica indirectly through trade. Major cultural areas however still developed independently of each other.
Norse contact and the polar regions . While there was little regular contact between the Americas and the Old World, the Norse explored and even colonized
Greenland and
Canada as early as 1000. None of these settlements survived past medieval times. Outside of Scandinavia knowledge of the discovery of the Americas was interpreted as a
remote island or the
North Pole. erroneously called
Eskimo. The Norse arriving from Iceland
settled Greenland from approximately 980 to 1450. Greenland would be lost to Europeans until
Danish Colonization in the 18th century. The Norse also explored and colonized farther south in
Newfoundland, Canada at
L'Anse aux Meadows referred to by the Norse as
Vinland. The colony at most existed for twenty years and resulted in no known transmission of diseases or technology to the
First Nations. To the Norse
Vinland was known for plentiful grape vines to make superior wine. One reason for the colony's failure was constant violence with the native
Beothuk people who the Norse referred to as
skrælings. After initial expeditions there is a possibility that the Norse continued to visit modern day Canada. Surviving records from medieval Iceland indicate some sporadic voyages to a land called
Markland, possibly the coast of
Labrador, Canada, as late as 1347 presumably to collect wood for deforested Greenland.
Northern areas In
North America, many
hunter-gatherer and agricultural societies thrived in the diverse region.
Native American tribes varied greatly in characteristics; some, including the
Mound Builders and the
Oasisamerican cultures were complex chiefdoms. Other nations which inhabited the states of the modern northern United States and Canada had less complexity and did not follow technological changes as quickly. Approximately around the year 500 during the
Woodland period, Native Americans began to transition to bows and arrows from spears for hunting and warfare. Around the year 1,000 corn was widely adopted as a staple crop in the
Eastern United States. Corn would continue to be the staple crop of natives in the Eastern United States and Canada until the Columbian exchange. In the Eastern United States, rivers were the medium of trade and communication.
Cahokia located in the modern US state of
Illinois was among the most significant city within the
Mississippian culture. Focused around
Monks Mound archaeology indicates the population increased exponentially after 1000 because it manufactured important tools for agriculture and hosted cultural attractions. Around 1350, Cahokia was abandoned with environmental factors having been proposed for the city's decline. At the same time, Ancestral Puebloans constructed clusters of buildings in the
Chaco Canyon site located in the
State of New Mexico. Individual houses may have been occupied by more than 600 residents at any one time. Chaco Canyon was the only pre-Columbian site in the United States to build paved roads. Pottery indicates a society that was becoming more complex, turkeys for the first time in the continental United States were also domesticated. Around 1150 the structures of Chaco Canyon were abandoned, likely as a result of severe drought. There were also other Pueblo complexes in the Southwestern United States like the
Cliff Palace located in
Mesa Verde National Park. After reaching climaxes native complex societies in the United States declined and did not entirely recover before the arrival of European explorers.
Caribbean . Dominican Republic: 15th–16th century. Concentrating a significant number of islands, the
Caribbean had been the scene of constant maritime migrations via canoes since the
Lithic stage, with its first inhabitants reaching the area by around 5000 BCE. After a millennium of population flows, the various peoples of the Caribbean entered in the post-classical period with notable developments on numerous permanent settlements and more complex social organizations, which were a result of the improvement of agricultural techniques and also the considerable growth of villages, that became great ceremonial and commercial centers led by different
Cacique. Trading goods like shells, cotton, gold, colored stones and rare feathers were largely exported from island to island, ranging from the
Lesser to the
Great Antilles. By around 650 C.E and 800 C.E, new migratory waves from the Caribbean coast of present-day
Venezuela took place and several people began a process of major cultural, sociopolitical, and ritual reformulations, which led to the formation of the first
chiefdoms and the emergence of
social hierarchy. This period can also be described by the expulsion of the ancient
Saladoid peoples from the main islands of the Caribbean and their subsequent replacement by the newly arrived
Taíno people, who fiercely competed with other
Arawak-speaking groups for arable land and war captives. Despite little evidence, some scholars still claim that the Taíno may have had a tenuous influence from the
Maya civilization, as certain customs, such as the practice of
batey, may have been inherited from the original
Mesoamerican ballgame which also carried a religious character. When
Christopher Columbus landed in
the Bahamas in 1492, he and his crew initially maintained a peaceful contact with the local Taíno people, but soon afterwards they were enslaved by the Spanish colonizers, bringing the area into the
early modern period.
Mesoamerica at the Tula site. The
Toltec civilization inspired the later
Aztecs. At the beginning of the global post-classical period, the city of
Teotihuacan was at its zenith, housing over 125,000 people, at 500 AD it was the sixth largest city in the world at the time. The city's residents built the
Pyramid of the Sun the third largest pyramid of the world, oriented to follow astronomical events. In the 6th and 7th centuries, the city suddenly declined possibly as a result of severe environmental damage caused by
extreme weather events of 535–536. There is evidence that large parts of the city were burned, possibly in a domestic rebellion. The city's legacy would inspire all future civilizations in the region. At the same time was Classic Age of the
Maya civilization clustered in dozens of city states on the
Yucatán and modern day
Guatemala. The most significant of these cities was
Chichen Itza which often fiercely competed with anywhere from 60 to 80 city states to be the dominant economic influence in the region. Likewise, other Mayan cities such as
Tikal and
Calakmul also initiated a series of full-scale conflicts in the area over power and prestige, culminating in the
Tikal-Calakmul Wars in the 6th century. The Mayans had an upper caste of priests, who were well versed in astronomy, mathematics, and writing. The Mayan developed the concept of zero, and a 365-day calendar which possibly pre-dates its creation in Old World societies. After 900, many Mayan cities suddenly declined due to ecological disaster which was likely caused by a combination of drought and an incessant cycle of warfare, It's also been noted that classical Mayan Cities lacked food storage facilities. The
Toltec Empire arose from the
Toltec culture, and were remembered as wise and benevolent leaders. One priest-king called
Ce Acatl Topiltzin advocated against human sacrifice. After his death in 947, civil wars of religious character broke out between those who supported and opposed Topiltzin's teachings. In the 1300s, a small band of violent, religious radicals called the Aztecs began minor raids throughout the area. Eventually they began to claim connections with the Toltec civilization, and insisted they were the rightful successors. They began to grow in numbers and conquer large areas of land. Fundamental to their conquest, was the use of
political terror in the sense that the Aztec leaders and priests would command the
human sacrifice of their
subjugated people as means of humility and coercion. Most of the Mesoamerican region would eventually fall under the Aztec Empire. On the
Yucatán Peninsula most of the
Maya peoples continued to be independent of the Aztecs but their traditional civilization declined. Aztec developments expanded cultivation, applying the use of
chinampas, irrigation, and
terrace agriculture; important crops included
maize,
sweet potatoes, and
avocados. In 1430, the city of
Tenochtitlan allied with other powerful
Nahuatl-speaking cities,
Texcoco and
Tlacopan, to create the Aztec Empire, otherwise known as the Triple Alliance. Though referred to as an empire the Aztec Empire functioned as a system of tribute collection with Tenochtitlan at its center. By the turn of the 16th century, "
flower wars" between the Aztecs and rival states such as
Tlaxcala had continued for over fifty years.
South America South American civilization was concentrated in the Andean region which had already hosted complex cultures since 2,500 BCE. East of the Andean region, societies were generally semi nomadic. Discoveries on the
Amazon River Basin indicate the region likely had a pre-contact population of five million people and hosted complex societies. Around the continent numerous agricultural peoples from
Colombia to
Argentina steadily advanced through numerous stages of development from 500 CE until European contact.
Andes During ancient times, the
Andes had developed civilizations independent of outside influences including that of Mesoamerica. Through the Post Classical era a cycle of civilizations continued until
Spanish contact. Collectively Andean societies lacked currency, a written language and solid draft animals enjoyed by old world civilizations. Instead Andeans developed other methods to foster their growth, including use of the
quipu system to communicate messages,
llamas to carry smaller loads and an economy based on
reciprocity. Societies were often based on strict social hierarchies and economic redistribution from the ruling class. In the first half of the post-classical period, the Andes was dominated by two almost equally powerful states. In the north of Peru was the
Wari Empire and in the south of Peru and Bolivia there was the
Tiwanaku Empire, both of whom were inspired by the earlier
Moche people. While the extent of their relationship to each other is unknown, it is believed that they competed with one another, but avoided direct conflict. Without war, there was prosperity and around the year 700 Tiwanaku city hosted a population of 1.4 million. After the 8th century both states declined due to changing environmental conditions, laying the ground work for the Incas and other minor kingdoms to emerge as distinct cultures centuries later. In the 15th century, the
Inca Empire rose to annex all other nations in the area. Led by their sun-god king,
Sapa Inca, they slowly conquered what is now
Peru, and built their society throughout the Andes cultural region. The Incas spoke the
Quechua languages. Taking advantage of ancient advances left by previous Andean societies, the Incas were able to create the most advanced system of trade routes of South America, known as the
Inca road system, which allowed greater interconnection between the conquered provinces. Incas have been known to have used
abacuses to calculate mathematics. The Inca Empire is known for some of its magnificent structures, such as
Machu Picchu in the
Cusco region. The empire expanded quickly northwards to Ecuador, southwards to central Chile. To the north of the Inca Empire remained the independent
Tairona and
Muisca Confederation who practiced agriculture and gold metallurgy. ==End of the period==