administered by
Chief Justice William Rehnquist at
the Capitol, January 20, 1989.
Bush was inaugurated on January 20, 1989, succeeding Reagan. In his inaugural address, Bush said: Bush's first major appointment was that of James Baker as Secretary of State. Leadership of the Department of Defense went to
Dick Cheney, who had previously served as Gerald Ford's chief of staff and would later serve as vice president under his son George W. Bush. Jack Kemp joined the administration as Secretary of Housing and Urban Development, while
Elizabeth Dole, the wife of Bob Dole and a former Secretary of Transportation, became the Secretary of Labor under Bush. Bush retained several Reagan officials, including Secretary of the Treasury
Nicholas F. Brady, Attorney General
Dick Thornburgh, and Secretary of Education
Lauro Cavazos. New Hampshire Governor John Sununu, a strong supporter of Bush during the 1988 campaign, became chief of staff.
Brent Scowcroft was appointed as the National Security Advisor, a role he had also held under Ford.
Foreign affairs End of the Cold War During the first year of his tenure, Bush paused Reagan's détente policy toward the Soviet Union. Bush and his advisers were initially divided on Gorbachev; some administration officials saw him as a democratic reformer, but others suspected him of trying to make the minimum changes necessary to restore the Soviet Union to a competitive position with the United States. In 1989, all the Communist governments collapsed in Eastern Europe. Gorbachev declined to send in the Soviet military, effectively abandoning the
Brezhnev Doctrine. The U.S. was not directly involved in these upheavals, but the Bush administration avoided gloating over the demise of the
Eastern Bloc to avoid undermining further democratic reforms. Bush and Gorbachev met at the
Malta Summit in December 1989. Though many on the right remained wary of Gorbachev, Bush came away believing that Gorbachev would negotiate in good faith. For the remainder of his term, Bush sought cooperative relations with Gorbachev, believing he was the key to peace. The primary issue at the Malta Summit was the potential
reunification of Germany. While Britain and France were wary of a reunified Germany, Bush joined German chancellor
Helmut Kohl in pushing for German reunification. Bush believed that a reunified Germany would serve American interests. After extensive negotiations, Gorbachev agreed to allow a reunified Germany to be a part of NATO, and Germany officially reunified in October 1990 after paying billions of
marks to Moscow. at the
Helsinki Summit in 1990 Gorbachev used force to suppress nationalist movements within the Soviet Union itself. A crisis in Lithuania left Bush in a difficult position, as he needed Gorbachev's cooperation in the reunification of Germany and feared that the collapse of the Soviet Union could leave nuclear arms in dangerous hands. The Bush administration mildly protested Gorbachev's suppression of Lithuania's independence movement but took no action to intervene directly. Bush warned independence movements of the disorder that could come with secession from the Soviet Union; in a 1991 address that critics labeled the "
Chicken Kiev speech", he cautioned against "suicidal nationalism". In July 1991, Bush and Gorbachev signed the
Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START I) treaty, in which both countries agreed to cut their strategic nuclear weapons by 30 percent. In August 1991, hard-line Communists launched a
coup against Gorbachev; while the coup quickly fell apart, it broke the remaining power of Gorbachev and the central Soviet government. Later that month, Gorbachev resigned as
general secretary of the Communist party, and Russian president
Boris Yeltsin ordered the seizure of Soviet property. Gorbachev clung to power as the
President of the Soviet Union until December 1991, when the Soviet Union
dissolved.
Fifteen states emerged from the Soviet Union, and of those states, Russia was the largest and most populous. Bush and Yeltsin met in February 1992, declaring a new era of "friendship and partnership". In January 1993, Bush and Yeltsin agreed to
START II, which provided for further nuclear arms reductions on top of the original START treaty.
Invasion of Panama Through the late 1980s, the U.S. provided aid to
Manuel Noriega, the anti-Communist leader of Panama. Noriega had long-standing ties to United States intelligence agencies, including during Bush's tenure as Director of Central Intelligence, and was also deeply involved in
drug trafficking. In May 1989, Noriega annulled the results of a democratic presidential election in which
Guillermo Endara had been elected. Bush objected to the annulment of the election and worried about the status of the
Panama Canal with Noriega still in office. Bush dispatched 2,000 soldiers to the country, where they began conducting regular military exercises violating prior treaties. After Panamanian forces shot a U.S. serviceman in December 1989, Bush ordered the
United States invasion of Panama, known as "Operation Just Cause". The invasion was the first large-scale American military operation unrelated to the Cold War in more than 40 years. American forces quickly took control of the Panama Canal Zone and
Panama City. Noriega surrendered on January 3, 1990, and was quickly transported to a prison in the United States. Twenty-three Americans died in the operation, while another 394 were wounded. Noriega was convicted and imprisoned on racketeering and drug trafficking charges in April 1992. Historian Stewart Brewer argues that the invasion "represented a new era in American foreign policy" because Bush did not justify the invasion under the
Monroe Doctrine or the threat of Communism, but rather because it was in the best interests of the United States.
Gulf War , General
Colin Powell, Secretary
Dick Cheney and others about the situation in the Persian Gulf, 1991 Faced with massive debts and low oil prices in the
aftermath of the Iran–Iraq War, Iraqi leader
Saddam Hussein decided to conquer the country of Kuwait, a small, oil-rich country situated on Iraq's southern border. After
Iraq invaded Kuwait in August 1990, Bush imposed
economic sanctions on Iraq and assembled a
multi-national coalition opposed to the invasion. Some in the administration feared that a failure to respond to the invasion would embolden Hussein to attack Saudi Arabia or Israel.
Robert Gates attempted to convince
Brent Scowcroft that Bush should tone down the rhetoric but Bush insisted it was his primary concern to discourage other countries from "unanswered aggression". Bush also wanted to ensure continued access to oil, as Iraq and Kuwait collectively accounted for 20% of the world's oil production, and Saudi Arabia produced another 26% of the world's oil supply. At Bush's insistence, in November 1990, the
United Nations Security Council approved a resolution authorizing the use of force if Iraq did not withdraw from Kuwait by January 15, 1991. Gorbachev's support and China's abstention helped ensure passage of the United Nations resolution. Bush convinced Britain, France, and other nations to commit soldiers to an operation against Iraq. He won important financial backing from Germany, Japan, South Korea, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates. In January 1991, Bush asked Congress to approve a joint resolution authorizing a war against Iraq. Bush believed that the United Nations resolution had already provided him with the necessary authorization to launch a military operation against Iraq. Still, he wanted to show that the nation was united behind military action. Despite the opposition of a majority of Democrats in both the House and the Senate, Congress approved the
Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq Resolution of 1991. After the January 15 deadline passed without an Iraqi withdrawal from Kuwait, U.S. and coalition forces conducted a bombing campaign that devastated Iraq's power grid and communications network and resulted in the desertion of about 100,000 Iraqi soldiers. In retaliation, Iraq launched
Scud missiles at Israel and Saudi Arabia, but most missiles did little damage. On February 23, coalition forces began a ground invasion into Kuwait, evicting Iraqi forces by the end of February 27. About 300 Americans and approximately 65 soldiers from other coalition nations died during the military action. A ceasefire was arranged on March 3, and the United Nations passed a resolution establishing a
peacekeeping force in a demilitarized zone between Kuwait and Iraq. A March 1991
Gallup poll showed that Bush had an approval rating of 89%, the highest presidential approval rating in the history of Gallup polling. After 1991, the United Nations maintained economic sanctions against Iraq, and the
United Nations Special Commission was assigned to ensure that Iraq did not revive its
weapons of mass destruction program.
NAFTA , President Bush, Prime Minister
Brian Mulroney; (seated)
Jaime Serra Puche,
Carla Hills, and
Michael Wilson at the NAFTA Initialing Ceremony, October 1992 In 1987, the U.S. and Canada reached a
free trade agreement that eliminated many tariffs between the two countries. President Reagan had intended it as the first step towards a larger trade agreement to eliminate most tariffs among the United States, Canada, and Mexico. The Bush administration, along with the
Progressive Conservative Canadian prime minister
Brian Mulroney, spearheaded the negotiations of the
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) with Mexico. In addition to lowering tariffs, the proposed treaty would affect patents, copyrights, and trademarks. In 1991, Bush sought
fast track authority, which grants the president the power to submit an international trade agreement to Congress without the possibility of amendment. Despite congressional opposition led by House Majority Leader
Dick Gephardt, both houses of Congress voted to grant Bush fast track authority. NAFTA was signed in December 1992, after Bush lost reelection, but President Clinton won ratification of NAFTA in 1993. NAFTA was controversial for its impact on wages, jobs, and overall economic growth. In 2020, it was replaced entirely by the
United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement (USMCA).
Domestic affairs Economy and fiscal issues The U.S. economy had generally performed well since emerging from
recession in late 1982, but it slipped into a mild
recession in 1990. The unemployment rate rose from 5.9% in 1989 to a high of 7.8% in mid-1991. Large
federal deficits, spawned during the Reagan years, rose from $152.1 billion in 1989 to $220 billion for 1990; the $220 billion deficit represented a threefold increase since 1980. As the public became increasingly concerned about the economy and other domestic affairs, Bush's well-received handling of foreign affairs became less of an issue for most voters. Bush's top domestic priority was to end federal budget deficits, which he saw as a liability for the country's long-term economic health and standing in the world. As he was opposed to major defense spending cuts and had pledged not to raise taxes, the president had major difficulties in balancing the budget. Bush and congressional leaders agreed to avoid major changes to the budget for
fiscal year 1990, which began in October 1989. However, both sides knew spending cuts or new taxes would be necessary for the following year's budget to avoid the draconian automatic domestic spending cuts required by the
Gramm–Rudman–Hollings Balanced Budget Act of 1987. Bush and other leaders also wanted to cut deficits because Federal Reserve Chair
Alan Greenspan refused to lower interest rates and thus stimulate economic growth unless the federal budget deficit was reduced. In a statement released in late June 1990, Bush said that he would be open to a deficit reduction program which included spending cuts, incentives for economic growth, budget process reform, as well as tax increases. To
fiscal conservatives in the Republican Party, Bush's statement represented a betrayal, and they heavily criticized him for compromising so early in the negotiations. In September 1990, Bush and congressional Democrats announced a compromise to cut mandatory and discretionary programs funding while raising revenue, partly through a higher gas tax. The compromise additionally included a
"pay as you go" provision that required that new programs be paid for at the time of implementation. House minority whip
Newt Gingrich led the conservative opposition to the bill, strongly opposing any form of tax increase. Some liberals also criticized the budget cuts in the compromise, and in October, the House rejected the deal, resulting in a brief government shutdown. Without the strong backing of the Republican Party, Bush agreed to another compromise bill, this one more favorable to Democrats. The
Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1990 (OBRA-90), enacted on October 27, 1990, dropped much of the gasoline tax increase in favor of higher income taxes on top earners. It included cuts to domestic spending, but the cuts were not as deep as those proposed in the original compromise. Bush's decision to sign the bill damaged his standing with conservatives and the general public, but it also laid the groundwork for the budget surpluses of the late 1990s.
Discrimination {{Quote box The
disabled had not received legal protections under the landmark Civil Rights Act of 1964, and many faced discrimination and segregation by the time Bush took office. In 1988,
Lowell P. Weicker Jr. and
Tony Coelho introduced the Americans with Disabilities Act, which barred employment discrimination against qualified individuals with disabilities. The bill had passed the Senate but not the House and was reintroduced in 1989. Though some conservatives opposed the bill due to its costs and potential burdens on businesses, Bush strongly supported it, partly because his son, Neil, had struggled with
dyslexia. After the bill passed both houses of Congress, Bush signed the
Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 into law in July 1990. The act required employers and public accommodations to make "reasonable accommodations" for disabled people while providing an exception when such accommodations imposed an "undue hardship". Senator
Ted Kennedy later led the congressional passage of a separate civil rights bill designed to facilitate launching employment discrimination lawsuits. In vetoing the bill, Bush argued that it would lead to racial quotas in hiring. In November 1991, Bush signed the
Civil Rights Act of 1991, which was largely similar to the bill he had vetoed in the previous year. In August 1990, Bush signed the
Ryan White CARE Act, the largest federally funded program dedicated to assisting persons living with
HIV/AIDS. Throughout his presidency, the
AIDS epidemic grew dramatically in the U.S. and around the world, and Bush often found himself at odds with AIDS activist groups who criticized him for not placing a high priority on HIV/AIDS research and funding. Frustrated by the administration's lack of urgency on the issue,
ACT UP dumped the ashes of deceased HIV/AIDS patients on the White House lawn during a viewing of the
AIDS Quilt in 1992. By that time, HIV had become the
leading cause of death in the U.S. for men aged 25–44.
Environment In June 1989, the Bush administration proposed a bill to amend the
Clean Air Act. Working with Senate majority leader
George J. Mitchell, the administration won passage of the amendments over the opposition of business-aligned members of Congress who feared the impact of tougher regulations. The legislation sought to curb
acid rain and smog by requiring decreased emissions of chemicals such as
sulfur dioxide, and was the first major update to the Clean Air Act since 1977. Bush also signed the
Oil Pollution Act of 1990 in response to the
Exxon Valdez oil spill. However, the
League of Conservation Voters criticized some of Bush's other environmental actions, including his opposition to stricter auto-mileage standards.
Points of Light Bush devoted attention to voluntary service to solve some of America's most serious social problems. He often used the "thousand points of light" theme to describe the power of citizens to solve community problems. In his 1989 inaugural address, Bush said, "I have spoken of a thousand points of light, of all the community organizations that are spread like stars throughout the Nation, doing good." During his presidency, Bush honored numerous volunteers with the Daily Point of Light Award, a tradition that his presidential successors continued. In 1990, the Points of Light Foundation was created as a nonprofit organization in Washington to promote this spirit of
volunteerism. In 2007, the Points of Light Foundation merged with the
Hands On Network to create a new organization,
Points of Light.
Judicial appointments to the Supreme Court in 1991. Bush appointed two justices to the
Supreme Court of the United States. In 1990, Bush appointed a largely unknown state appellate judge,
David Souter, to replace liberal icon
William J. Brennan Jr. In 1991, Bush nominated conservative federal judge
Clarence Thomas to succeed
Thurgood Marshall, a long-time liberal stalwart. Thomas, the former head of the
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC),
faced heavy opposition in the Senate, as well as from
pro-choice groups and the
NAACP. His nomination faced another difficulty when
Anita Hill accused Thomas of having sexually harassed her during his time as the chair of EEOC. Thomas won confirmation in a narrow 52–48 vote; 43 Republicans and 9 Democrats voted to confirm Thomas's nomination, while 46 Democrats and 2 Republicans voted against confirmation. Thomas became one of the most conservative justices of his era.
Other issues Bush's education platform consisted mainly of offering federal support for a variety of innovations, such as open enrollment, incentive pay for outstanding teachers, and rewards for schools that improve performance with underprivileged children. Though Bush did not pass a major educational reform package during his presidency, his ideas influenced later reform efforts, including
Goals 2000 and the
No Child Left Behind Act. Bush signed the
Immigration Act of 1990, which led to a 40% increase in legal
immigration to the United States. The act more than doubled the number of visas given to immigrants on the basis of job skills. In the wake of the
savings and loan crisis, Bush proposed a $50 billion package to rescue the
savings and loans industry, and also proposed the creation of the
Office of Thrift Supervision to regulate the industry. Congress passed the
Financial Institutions Reform, Recovery, and Enforcement Act of 1989, which incorporated most of Bush's proposals.
Public image Bush was widely seen as a "pragmatic caretaker" president who lacked a unified and compelling long-term theme in his efforts. A Bush
sound bite, referring to the issue of overarching purpose as "the vision thing", has become a metonym applied to other political figures accused of similar difficulties. His ability to gain broad international support for the
Gulf War and the war's result were seen as both a diplomatic and military triumph, rousing bipartisan approval, though his decision to withdraw without removing Saddam Hussein left mixed feelings, and attention returned to the domestic front and a souring economy. A
New York Times article
mistakenly depicted Bush as being surprised to see a supermarket
barcode reader; the report of his reaction exacerbated the notion that he was "out of touch". His sudden drop in his favorability was likely due to the
early 1990s recession, which shifted his image from "conquering hero" to "politician befuddled by economic matters". At the elite level, several commentators and political experts lamented the state of American politics in 1991–1992 and reported the voters were angry. Many analysts blamed the poor quality of national election campaigns.
1992 presidential campaign Bush announced his reelection bid in early 1992; with a coalition victory in the Persian Gulf War and high approval ratings, Bush's reelection initially looked likely. As a result, many leading Democrats, including
Mario Cuomo, Dick Gephardt, and
Al Gore, declined to seek their party's presidential nomination. However, Bush's tax increase angered many conservatives, who believed that Bush had strayed from the conservative principles of Ronald Reagan. He faced a challenge from conservative political columnist
Pat Buchanan in the
1992 Republican primaries. Bush fended off Buchanan's challenge and won his party's nomination at the
1992 Republican National Convention. Still, the convention adopted a socially conservative platform strongly influenced by the
Christian right. by
Bill Clinton. Meanwhile, the Democrats nominated Governor
Bill Clinton of Arkansas. A moderate who was affiliated with the
Democratic Leadership Council (DLC), Clinton favored welfare reform, deficit reduction, and a tax cut for the middle class. In early 1992, the race took an unexpected twist when Texas billionaire
H. Ross Perot launched a third-party bid, claiming that neither Republicans nor Democrats could eliminate the deficit and make government more efficient. His message appealed to voters across the political spectrum disappointed with both parties' perceived fiscal irresponsibility. Perot also attacked NAFTA, which he claimed would lead to major job losses. National polling taken in mid-1992 showed Perot in the lead, but Clinton experienced a surge through effective campaigning and the selection of Senator Al Gore, a popular and relatively young Southerner, as his running mate. Clinton won the election, taking 43% of the popular vote and 370 electoral votes, while Bush won 37.5% of the popular vote and 168 electoral votes. Perot won 19% of the popular vote, one of the
highest totals for a third-party candidate in U.S. history, drawing equally from both major candidates, according to exit polls. Clinton performed well in the Northeast, the Midwest, and the West Coast, while also waging the strongest Democratic campaign in the South since the 1976 election. Several factors were important in Bush's defeat. The ailing economy which arose from recession may have been the main factor in Bush's loss, as 7 in 10 voters said on election day that the economy was either "not so good" or "poor". On the eve of the 1992 election, the unemployment rate stood at 7.8%, which was the highest it had been since 1984. The president was also damaged by his alienation of many conservatives in his party. Bush partially blamed Perot for his defeat, though exit polls showed that Perot drew his voters about equally from Clinton and Bush. Despite his defeat, Bush left office with a 56% job approval rating in January 1993. Like many of his predecessors, Bush issued a
series of pardons during his last days in office. In December 1992, he granted executive clemency to six former senior government officials implicated in the Iran-Contra scandal, most prominently former Secretary of Defense
Caspar Weinberger. The charges against the six were that they lied to or withheld information from Congress. The pardons effectively brought an end to the Iran-Contra scandal. According to
Seymour Martin Lipset, the 1992 election had several unique characteristics. Voters felt that economic conditions were worse than they were, which harmed Bush. A rare event was the presence of a strong third-party candidate. Liberals launched a backlash against 12 years of a conservative White House. The chief factor was Clinton uniting his party and winning over several heterogeneous groups. == Post-presidency (1993–2018) ==