, figure from between 28,000 and 25,000 BC. Now in the
Naturhistorisches Museum,
Vienna. An example of prehistoric art.
Prehistoric art Surviving European
prehistoric art mainly comprises sculpture and rock art. It includes the oldest known representation of the human body, the
Venus of Hohle Fel, dating from 40,000 to 35,000 BC, found in
Schelklingen,
Germany, and the
Löwenmensch figurine, from about 30,000 BC, the oldest undisputed piece of figurative art. The
Swimming Reindeer of about 11,000 BCE is among the finest
Magdalenian carvings in bone or antler of animals in the
art of the Upper Paleolithic. At the beginning of the
Mesolithic in Europe, the figurative sculpture was greatly reduced, and remained a less common element in art than relief decoration of practical objects until the Roman period, despite some works such as the
Gundestrup cauldron from the
European Iron Age and the Bronze Age
Trundholm sun chariot. The oldest European cave art dates back to 40,800 and can be found in the
El Castillo Cave in Spain, but cave art exists across the continent. Rock painting was also performed on cliff faces, but fewer of those paintings have survived because of erosion. One well-known example is the rock paintings of
Astuvansalmi in the
Saimaa area of Finland. The
Rock Art of the Iberian Mediterranean Basin forms a distinct group with the human figure the main focus, often seen in large groups, with battles, dancing, and hunting all represented, as well as other activities and details such as clothing. The figures are generally rather sketchily depicted in thin paint, with the relationships between the groups of humans and animals more carefully depicted than individual figures. Prehistoric
Celtic art is another distinct grouping from much of
Iron Age Europe and survives mainly in the form of high-status metalwork skillfully decorated with complex, elegant, and mostly abstract designs, often using curving and spiral forms. Full-length human figures of any size are so rare that their absence may represent a religious taboo. As the Romans conquered Celtic territories, the style vanished, except in the
British Isles, where it influenced the
Insular style of the Early Middle Ages.
Classical art '', statue of the emperor
Augustus, 1st century AD,
Vatican Museums. An example of Roman art.
Ancient Greek art stands out among that of other ancient cultures for its development of naturalistic but idealized depictions of the human body, in which largely nude male figures were generally the focus of innovation. The rate of stylistic development between about 750 and 300 BC was remarkable by ancient standards, and in surviving works is best seen in
Ancient Greek sculpture. There were important innovations in painting, which have to be essentially reconstructed due to the lack of original survivals of quality, other than the distinct field of painted pottery.
Black-figure pottery and the subsequent
red-figure pottery are famous and influential examples of the Ancient Greek decorative arts.
Roman art was influenced by Greece and can in part be taken as a descendant of ancient Greek painting and sculpture, but was also strongly influenced by the more local
Etruscan art of Italy. The sculpture was perhaps considered as the highest form of art by Romans, but figure painting was also very highly regarded. The
Roman sculpture is primarily portraiture derived from the upper classes of society as well as depictions of the gods. However, Roman painting does have important unique characteristics. Among surviving Roman paintings are wall paintings, many from villas in
Campania, in Southern Italy, especially at
Pompeii and
Herculaneum. Such painting can be grouped into four main "styles" or periods and may contain the first examples of
trompe-l'œil, pseudo-perspective, and pure landscape.
Early Christian art grew out of Roman popular, and later Imperial, art and adapted its
iconography from these sources.
Medieval art Medieval art can be broadly categorized into the Byzantine art of the Eastern Roman Empire, and the Gothic art that emerged in Western Europe over the same period.
Byzantine art was strongly influenced by its classical heritage but distinguished itself by the development of a new, abstract, aesthetic, marked by anti-naturalism and a favor for symbolism. The subject matter of monumental Byzantine art was primarily religious and imperial: the two themes are often combined, as in the portraits of later Byzantine emperors that decorated the interior of the sixth-century church of
Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. However, the Byzantines inherited the
Early Christian distrust of
monumental sculpture in religious art, and produced only
reliefs, of which very few survivals are anything like life-size, in sharp contrast to the medieval art of the West, where monumental sculpture revived from
Carolingian art onwards. Small ivories were also mostly in relief. The so-called "minor arts" were very important in Byzantine art, and luxury items, including ivories carved in relief as formal presentation
Consular diptychs or caskets such as the
Veroli casket,
hardstone carvings,
enamels,
glass, jewelry, metalwork, and
figured silks were produced in large quantities throughout the Byzantine era. '',
Sandro Botticelli, c. 1485. Now in the
Uffizi Gallery,
Florence, Italy. An example of Renaissance art.
Migration Period art includes the art of the Germanic tribes on the continent, as well the start of the distinct
Insular art or Hiberno-Saxon art of the
Anglo-Saxon and Celtic fusion in the
British Isles. It covers many different styles of art including the polychrome style and the Scythian and Germanic
animal style. After
Christianization, Migration Period art developed into various schools of Early
Medieval art in Western Europe, which are normally classified by region, such as
Anglo-Saxon art and
Carolingian art, before the continent-wide styles of
Romanesque art and finally
Gothic art developed. and his court, from the church of
San Vitale, Ravenna, Italy. An example of
Byzantine art.
Romanesque art and
Gothic art dominated Western and Central Europe from approximately 1000 AD to the rise of the
Renaissance style in the 15th century or later, depending on the region. The Romanesque style was greatly influenced by Byzantine and Insular art. Religious art, such as church sculpture and decorated manuscripts, was particularly prominent. Art of the period was characterized by a very vigorous style in both sculpture and painting. Colors tended to be very striking and mostly primary. Compositions usually had little depth, and needed to be flexible to be squeezed into the shapes of
historiated initials, column capitals, and church
tympanums. Figures often varied in size in relation to their importance, and landscape backgrounds, if attempted at all, were closer to abstract decorations than realism. Gothic art developed from Romanesque art in Northern France in the 12th century AD, led by the concurrent development of
Gothic architecture. It spread to all of
Western Europe, and much of
Southern and
Central Europe. In the late 14th century, the sophisticated court style of
International Gothic developed, which continued to evolve until the late 15th century. In many areas, especially England and Germany, Late Gothic art continued well into the 16th century. Gothic art was often
typological in nature, showing the stories of the New Testament and the Old Testament side by side. Saints' lives were often depicted. Images of the
Virgin Mary changed from the Byzantine iconic form to a more human and affectionate mother, often showing the refined manners of a courtly lady.
Secular art came into its own during the gothic period alongside the creation of a
bourgeois class who could afford to patronize the arts and commission works. Increased literacy and a growing body of
secular vernacular literature encouraged the representation of secular themes in art. With the growth of cities,
trade guilds were formed, and artists were often required to be members of a
painters' guild—as a result, because of better record-keeping, more artists are known to us by name in this period than any previous.
Renaissance art Renaissance art emerged as a distinct style in northern Italy from around 1420, in parallel with developments which occurred in
philosophy,
literature,
music, and
science. It took as its foundation the art of
Classical antiquity, but was also influenced by the art of Northern Europe and contemporary scientific knowledge. Renaissance artists painted a wide variety of
themes. Religious
altarpieces,
fresco cycles, and small works for private devotion were very popular. Painters in both Italy and northern Europe frequently turned to
Jacobus de Voragine's
Golden Legend (1260), a highly influential sourcebook for the lives of
saints that had already had a strong influence on Medieval artists. Interest in classical antiquity and
Renaissance humanism also resulted in many
Mythological and
history paintings. Decorative
ornament, often used in painted architectural elements, was especially influenced by classical Roman motifs. '',
Gian Lorenzo Bernini, 1647–52, in
Santa Maria della Vittoria, Rome. A Baroque sculpture.|alt= '', by
Pierre-Auguste Renoir, 1876, oil on canvas, height: 131 cm.
Musée d'Orsay (Paris). Techniques characteristic of Renaissance art include the use of
proportion and
linear perspective;
foreshortening, to create an illusion of depth;
sfumato, a technique of softening of sharp outlines by subtle blending of tones to give the illusion of depth or three-dimensionality; and
chiaroscuro, the effect of using a strong contrast between light and dark to give the illusion of depth or three-dimensionality.
Mannerism, Baroque and Rococo Renaissance Classicism spawned two different movements—
Mannerism and the
Baroque. Mannerism, a reaction against the idealist perfection of Classicism, employed distortion of light and spatial frameworks in order to emphasize the emotional content of a painting and the emotions of the painter. Where High Renaissance art emphasizes proportion, balance, and ideal beauty, Mannerism exaggerates such qualities, often resulting in compositions that are asymmetrical or unnaturally elegant. The style is notable for its intellectual sophistication as well as its artificial (as opposed to naturalistic) qualities. It favors compositional tension and instability rather than the balance and clarity of earlier Renaissance paintings. In contrast, Baroque art took the representationalism of the Renaissance to new heights, emphasizing detail, movement, lighting, and drama. Perhaps the best-known Baroque painters are
Caravaggio,
Rembrandt,
Peter Paul Rubens, and
Diego Velázquez. Baroque art is often seen as part of the
Counter-Reformation— the revival of spiritual life in the
Roman Catholic Church. Religious and political themes are widely explored within the Baroque artistic context, and both paintings and sculptures are characterized by a strong element of drama, emotion, and theatricality. Baroque art was particularly ornate and elaborate in nature, often using rich, warm colors with dark undertones.
Dutch Golden Age painting is a distinct subset of Baroque, leading to the development of secular genres such as
still life,
genre paintings of everyday scenes, and
landscape painting. By the 18th century, Baroque art had developed into
Rococo in France. Rococo art was even more elaborate than the Baroque, but it was less serious and more playful. The artistic movement no longer placed emphasis on politics and religion, focusing instead on lighter themes such as romance, celebration, and appreciation of nature. Furthermore, it sought inspiration from the artistic forms and ornamentation of
Far Eastern Asia, resulting in the rise in favor of
porcelain figurines and
chinoiserie in general. Rococo soon fell out of favor, being seen by many as a gaudy and superficial movement emphasizing aesthetics over meaning.
Neoclassical, Romanticism, and Realism '' by
Antonio Canova. The sculpting process began in 1814 and was completed in 1817.
Neoclassicism began in the 18th century as a counter-movement opposing Rococo. It desired for a return to the simplicity, order, and 'purism' of classical antiquity, especially ancient Greece and Rome. Neoclassicism was the artistic component of the intellectual movement known as
the Enlightenment. Neoclassicism had become widespread in Europe throughout the 18th century, especially in the
United Kingdom. In many ways, Neoclassicism can be seen as a political movement as well as an artistic and cultural one. Neoclassical art places emphasis on order, symmetry, and classical simplicity; common themes in Neoclassical art include courage and war, as were commonly explored in ancient Greek and Roman art.
Ingres,
Canova, and
Jacques-Louis David are among the best-known neoclassicists. Just as Mannerism rejected Classicism,
Romanticism rejected the aesthetic of the Neoclassicists, specifically the highly objective and ordered nature of Neoclassicism, favoring instead a more individual and emotional approach to the arts. Emphasis was placed on nature, especially when aiming to portray the power and beauty of the natural world, and emotions. Romantic art often used colors in order to express feelings and emotions. Romantic art was inspired by ancient Greek and Roman art and mythology, but also takes much of its aesthetic qualities from
medievalism and
Gothicism, as well as later mythology and
folklore. Among the greatest Romantic artists were
Eugène Delacroix,
Francisco Goya,
J. M. W. Turner,
John Constable,
Caspar David Friedrich, and
William Blake. In response to these changes caused by
Industrialisation, the movement of
Realism emerged, which sought to accurately portray the conditions and hardships of the poor in the hopes of changing society. In contrast with Romanticism, which was essentially optimistic about mankind, Realism offered a stark vision of poverty and despair. While Romanticism glorified nature, Realism portrayed life in the depths of an urban wasteland. Like Romanticism,
Realism was a literary as well as an artistic movement. Other contemporary movements were more
Historicist in nature, such as the
Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, which attempted to return art to its state of "purity" prior to
Raphael, and the
Arts and Crafts Movement, which reacted against the impersonality of mass-produced goods and advocated a return to medieval craftsmanship. == Music ==