in the
850s The
Abbasid dynasty rose to power in 750, consolidating the gains of the earlier
Caliphates. Initially, they conquered
Mediterranean islands including the
Balearics and, after, in 827 the
Southern Italy. The
ruling party had come to power on the wave of dissatisfaction with the Umayyads, cultivated by the Abbasid revolutionary
Abu Muslim. Under the Abbasids Islamic civilization flourished. Most notable was the development of Arabic
prose and
poetry, termed by
The Cambridge History of Islam as its "
golden age". Commerce and industry (considered a
Muslim Agricultural Revolution) and the
arts and sciences (considered a
Muslim Scientific Revolution) also prospered under Abbasid caliphs
al-Mansur (ruled 754–775),
Harun al-Rashid (ruled 786–809),
al-Ma'mun (ruled 809–813) and their immediate successors. Many non-Muslims, such as
Christians,
Jews and
Sabians, and the institution known as the
House of Wisdom employed
Christian and
Persian scholars to both translate works into Arabic and to develop new knowledge. of Abbasid caliph
Al-Mansur (r. 754–775) the founder of
Baghdad,
patron of art and science The capital was moved from Damascus to
Baghdad, due to the importance placed by the Abbasids upon eastern affairs in
Persia and
Transoxania. Expansion continued, sometimes by force, sometimes by peaceful
proselytising. The Abbasids developed initiatives aimed at greater Islamic unity. Different sects of the Islamic faith and mosques, separated by doctrine, history, and practice, were pushed to cooperate. The Abbasids also distinguished themselves from the Umayyads by attacking the Umayyads' moral character and administration. According to
Ira Lapidus, "The Abbasid revolt was supported largely by Arabs, mainly the aggrieved settlers of Marw with the addition of the Yemeni faction and their
Mawali". The Abbasids also appealed to non-Arab Muslims, known as
mawali, who remained outside the
kinship-based society of the Arabs and were perceived as a lower class within the Umayyad empire. Islamic
ecumenism, promoted by the Abbasids, refers to the idea of unity of the
Ummah in the literal meaning: that there was a single faith. Islamic philosophy developed as the
Shariah was codified, and the four
Madhabs were established. This era also saw the rise of classical
Sufism. Religious achievements included completion of the canonical collections of
Hadith of
Sahih Bukhari and others. Islam recognized to a certain extent the validity of the
Abrahamic religions, the Quran identifying
Jews,
Christians,
Zoroastrians, and
Sabians (commonly identified with the
Mandaeans) as "
people of the book". Toward the beginning of the high Middle Ages, the doctrines of the
Sunni and
Shia, two major
denominations of Islam, solidified and the
divisions of the world theologically would form. These trends would continue into the Fatimid and Ayyubid periods. Politically, the Abbasid Caliphate evolved into an Islamic
monarchy (
unitary system of government.) The regional
Sultanate and
Emirate governors' existence, validity, or legality were acknowledged for unity of the state. In the
early Islamic philosophy of the
Iberian Umayyads,
Averroes presented an argument in
The Decisive Treatise, providing a justification for the emancipation of science and philosophy from official
Ash'ari theology; thus,
Averroism has been considered a precursor to modern
secularism.
Golden Baghdad Abbasids Early Middle Ages ImageSize = width:800 height:75 PlotArea = width:720 height:55 left:65 bottom:20 AlignBars = justify Colors = id:time value:rgb(0.7,0.7,1) # id:period value:rgb(1,0.7,0.5) # id:span value:rgb(0.9,0.8,0.5) # id:age value:rgb(0.95,0.85,0.5) # id:era value:rgb(1,0.85,0.5) # id:eon value:rgb(1,0.85,0.7) # id:filler value:gray(0.8) # background bar id:black value:black Period = from:750 till:813 TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:10 start:750 ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:1 start:750 PlotData = align:center textcolor:black fontsize:8 mark:(line, black) width:10 shift:(0,-3) from:750 till:754 color:era text:
Saffah from:754 till:775 color:era text:
Mansur from:775 till:785 color:age shift:(-6,6) text:
Mahdi from:785 till:786 color:era shift:(0,-13) text:
Hadi from:786 till:809 color:age text:
Harun from:809 till:813 color:era shift:(0,-13) text:
Amin According to Arab sources in the year 750,
Al-Saffah, the founder of the Abbasid Caliphate, launched a massive rebellion against the Umayyad Caliphate from the province of Khurasan near Talas. After eliminating the entire Umayyad family and achieving victory at the
Battle of the Zab, Al-Saffah and his forces marched into Damascus and founded a new dynasty. His forces confronted many regional powers and consolidated the realm of the Abbasid Caliphate. In
Al-Mansur's time, Persian scholarship emerged. Many non-Arabs converted to Islam. The Umayyads actively discouraged conversion in order to continue the collection of the jizya, or the tax on non-Muslims. Islam nearly doubled within its territory from 8% of residents in 750 to 15% by the end of Al-Mansur's reign.
Al-Mahdi, whose name means "Rightly-guided" or "Redeemer", was proclaimed caliph when his father was on his deathbed. Baghdad blossomed during Al-Mahdi's reign, becoming the world's largest city. It attracted immigrants from Arabia, Iraq, Syria, Persia and as far away as India and Spain. Baghdad was home to Christians, Jews, Hindus, and Zoroastrians, in addition to the growing Muslim population. Like his father,
Al-Hadi was open to his people and allowed citizens to address him in the palace at Baghdad. He was considered an "enlightened ruler", and continued the policies of his Abbasid predecessors. His short rule was plagued by military conflicts and internal intrigue. The military conflicts subsided as
Harun al-Rashid ruled. His reign was marked by scientific, cultural and religious prosperity. He established the library
Bayt al-Hikma ("House of Wisdom"), and the arts and music flourished during his reign. The
Barmakid family played a decisive advisorial role in establishing the Caliphate, but declined during Rashid's rule.
Al-Amin received the Caliphate from his father Harun Al-Rashid, but failed to respect the arrangements made for his brothers, leading to the
Fourth Fitna.
Al-Ma'mun's general
Tahir ibn Husayn took Baghdad, executing Al-Amin. The war led to a loss of prestige for the dynasty.
Rise of regional powers The Abbasids soon became caught in a three-way rivalry among
Coptic Arabs,
Indo-Persians, and immigrant Turks. In addition, the cost of running a large empire became too great. The Turks, Egyptians, and Arabs adhered to the Sunnite sect; the Persians, a great portion of the Turkic groups, and several of the princes in India were Shia. The political unity of Islam began to disintegrate. Under the influence of the Abbasid caliphs, independent dynasties appeared in the Muslim world and the caliphs recognized such dynasties as legitimately Muslim. The first was the
Tahirids in
Khorasan, which was founded during the caliph
Al-Ma'mun's reign. Similar dynasties included the
Saffarids,
Samanids,
Ghaznavids and
Seljuqs. During this time, advancements were made in the areas of astronomy, poetry, philosophy, science, and mathematics.
High Baghdad Abbasids Early Middle Ages ImageSize = width:800 height:75 PlotArea = width:720 height:55 left:65 bottom:20 AlignBars = justify Colors = id:time value:rgb(0.7,0.7,1) # id:period value:rgb(1,0.7,0.5) # id:span value:rgb(0.9,0.8,0.5) # id:age value:rgb(0.95,0.85,0.5) # id:era value:rgb(1,0.85,0.5) # id:eon value:rgb(1,0.85,0.7) # id:filler value:gray(0.8) # background bar id:black value:black Period = from:813 till:940 TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:10 start:813 ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:1 start:813 PlotData = align:center textcolor:black fontsize:8 mark:(line, black) width:10 shift:(0,-3) from:813 till:833 color:age text:
Ma'mun from:833 till:842 color:era shift:(0,10) text:
Mu'tasim from:842 till:847 color:age shift:(0,20) text:
Wathiq from:847 till:861 color:era shift:(0,10) text:
Mutawakkil from:861 till:862 color:age shift:(0,-13) text:
Muntasir from:862 till:866 color:era text:
Musta'in from:866 till:869 color:age shift:(0,10) text:
Mu'tazz from:869 till:870 color:era shift:(0,20) text:
Muhtadi from:870 till:892 color:age text:
Mu'tamid from:892 till:902 color:era shift:(0,-13) text:
Mu'tadid from:902 till:908 color:age shift:(3,0) text:
Muktafi from:908 till:932 color:era shift:(-15,10) text:
Muqtadir from:932 till:934 color:age shift:(0,-13) text:
Qahir from:934 till:940 color:era text:
Radi Upon Al-Amin's death,
Al-Ma'mun became Caliph. Al-Ma'mun extended the Abbasid empire's territory during his reign and dealt with rebellions. Al-Ma'mun had been named governor of Khurasan by Harun, and after his ascension to power, the caliph named Tahir as governor of his military services in order to assure his loyalty. Tahir and his family became entrenched in Iranian politics and became powerful, frustrating Al-Ma'mun's desire to centralize and strengthen Caliphal power. The rising power of the
Tahirid family became a threat as Al-Ma'mun's own policies alienated them and other opponents. Al-Ma'mun worked to centralize power and ensure a smooth succession. Al-Mahdi proclaimed that the caliph was the protector of Islam against heresy, and also claimed the ability to declare orthodoxy. Religious scholars averred that Al-Ma'mun was overstepping his bounds in the
Mihna, the
Abbasid inquisition which he introduced in 833 four months before he died. The
Ulama emerged as a force in Islamic politics during Al-Ma'mun's reign for opposing the inquisitions. The
Ulema and the major Islamic law schools took shape in the period of Al-Ma'mun. In parallel, Sunnism became defined as a religion of laws. Doctrinal differences between Sunni and Shi'a Islam became more pronounced. During the Al-Ma'mun regime,
border wars increased. Al-Ma'mun made preparations for a major campaign, but died while leading an expedition in
Sardis. Al-Ma'mun gathered scholars of many religions at Baghdad, whom he treated well and with tolerance. He sent an emissary to the Byzantine Empire to collect the most famous manuscripts there, and had them translated into Arabic. His scientists originated
alchemy. Shortly before his death, during a visit to Egypt in 832, the caliph ordered the breaching of the
Great Pyramid of Giza to search for knowledge and treasure. Workers tunnelled in near where tradition located the original entrance. Al-Ma'mun later died near Tarsus under questionable circumstances and was succeeded by his half-brother,
Al-Mu'tasim, rather than his son, Al-Abbas ibn Al-Ma'mun. As Caliph, Al-Mu'tasim promptly ordered the dismantling of al-Ma'mun's military base at Tyana. He faced Khurramite revolts. One of the most difficult problems facing this Caliph was the ongoing uprising of Babak Khorramdin. Al-Mu'tasim overcame the rebels and secured a significant victory.
Byzantine emperor Theophilus launched an attack against Abbasid fortresses. Al-Mu'tasim sent Al-Afshin, who met and defeated Theophilus' forces at the
Battle of Anzen. On his return he became aware of a serious military conspiracy which forced him and his successors to rely upon Turkish commanders and
ghilman slave-soldiers (foreshadowing the
Mamluk system). The Khurramiyyah were never fully suppressed, although they slowly declined during the reigns of succeeding Caliphs. Near the end of al-Mu'tasim's life there was an uprising in Palestine, but he defeated the rebels. of Abbasid caliph
al-Mu'tasim (
r. 833–842) the founder of
Samarra, patron of art and science During Al-Mu'tasim's reign, the Tahirid family continued to grow in power. The Tahirids were exempted from many tribute and oversight functions. Their independence contributed to Abbasid decline in the east. Ideologically, al-Mu'tasim followed his half-brother al-Ma'mun. He continued his predecessor's support for the Islamic Mu'tazila sect, applying brutal torture against the opposition. Arab mathematician
Al-Kindi was employed by Al-Mu'tasim and tutored the Caliph's son. Al-Kindi had served at the House of Wisdom and continued his studies in Greek geometry and algebra under the caliph's patronage.
Al-Wathiq succeeded his father. Al-Wathiq dealt with opposition in Arabia, Syria, Palestine and in Baghdad. Using a famous sword he personally joined the execution of the Baghdad rebels. The revolts were the result of an increasingly large gap between Arab populations and the Turkish armies. The revolts were put down, but antagonism between the two groups grew, as Turkish forces gained power. He also secured a captive exchange with the Byzantines. Al-Wathiq was a patron of scholars, as well as artists. He personally had musical talent and is reputed to have composed over one hundred songs. at the
Great Mosque of Samarra. When Al-Wathiq died of high fever,
Al-Mutawakkil succeeded him. Al-Mutawakkil's reign is remembered for many reforms and is viewed as a golden age. He was the last great Abbasid caliph; after his death the dynasty fell into decline. Al-Mutawakkil ended the Mihna. Al-Mutawakkil built the
Great Mosque of Samarra as part of an extension of Samarra eastwards. During his reign, Al-Mutawakkil met famous Byzantine theologian
Constantine the Philosopher, who was sent to strengthen diplomatic relations between the Empire and the Caliphate by
Emperor Michael III. Al-Mutawakkil involved himself in religious debates, as reflected in his actions against minorities. The Shīʻi faced repression embodied in the destruction of the
shrine of Hussayn ibn ʻAlī, an action that was ostensibly carried out to stop pilgrimages. Al-Mutawakkil continued to rely on Turkish statesmen and slave soldiers to put down rebellions and lead battles against foreign empires, notably capturing Sicily from the Byzantines. Al-Mutawakkil was assassinated by a Turkish soldier.
Al-Muntasir succeeded to the Caliphate on the same day with the support of the Turkish faction, though he was implicated in the murder. The Turkish party had al-Muntasir remove his brothers from the line of succession, fearing revenge for the murder of their father. Both brothers wrote statements of abdication. During his reign, Al-Muntasir removed the ban on pilgrimage to the tombs of Hassan and Hussayn and sent Wasif to raid the Byzantines. Al-Muntasir died of unknown causes. The Turkish chiefs held a council to select his successor, electing
Al-Musta'in. The Arabs and western troops from Baghdad were displeased at the choice and attacked. However, the Caliphate no longer depended on Arabian choice, but depended on Turkish support. After the failed Muslim campaign against the Christians, people blamed the Turks for bringing disaster on the faith and murdering their Caliphs. After the Turks besieged Baghdad, Al-Musta'in planned to abdicate to
Al-Mu'tazz but was put to death by his order. Al-Mu'tazz was enthroned by the Turks, becoming the youngest Abbasid Caliph to assume power. Al-Mu'tazz proved too apt a pupil of his Turkish masters, but was surrounded by parties jealous of each other. At
Samarra, the Turks were having problems with the "Westerns" (Berbers and
Moors), while the Arabs and Persians at Baghdad, who had supported al-Musta'in, regarded both with equal hatred. Al-Mu'tazz put his brothers Al-Mu'eiyyad and Abu Ahmed to death. The ruler spent recklessly, causing a revolt of Turks, Africans, and Persians for their pay. Al-Mu'tazz was brutally deposed shortly thereafter.
Al-Muhtadi became the next Caliph. He was firm and virtuous compared to the earlier Caliphs, though the Turks held the power. The Turks killed him soon after his ascension.
Al-Mu'tamid followed, holding on for 23 years, though he was largely a ruler in name only. After the
Zanj Rebellion, Al-Mu'tamid summoned
al-Muwaffak to help him. Thereafter, Al-Muwaffaq ruled in all but name. The
Hamdanid dynasty was founded by
Hamdan ibn Hamdun when he was appointed governor of
Mardin in Anatolia by the Caliphs in 890. Al-Mu'tamid later transferred authority to his son,
al-Mu'tadid, and never regained power. The
Tulunids became the first independent state in Islamic Egypt, when they broke away during this time. Al-Mu'tadid ably administered the Caliphate. Egypt returned to allegiance and Mesopotamia was restored to order. He was tolerant towards Shi'i, but toward the Umayyad community he was not so just. Al-Mu'tadid was cruel in his punishments, some of which are not surpassed by those of his predecessors. For example, the Kharijite leader at Mosul was paraded about Baghdad clothed in a robe of silk, of which Kharijites denounced as sinful, and then crucified. Upon Al-Mu'tadid's death, his son by a Turkish slave-
concubine,
Al-Muktafi, succeeded to the throne. Al-Muktafi became a favourite of the people for his generosity, and for abolishing his father's secret prisons, the terror of Baghdad. During his reign, the Caliphate overcame threats such as the
Carmathians. Upon Al-Muktafi's death, the vazir next chose
Al-Muqtadir. Al-Muqtadir's reign was a constant succession of thirteen Vazirs, one rising on the fall or assassination of another. His long reign brought the Empire to its lowest ebb. Africa was lost, and Egypt nearly. Mosul threw off its dependence, and the Greeks raided across the undefended border. The East continued to formally recognize the Caliphate, including those who virtually claimed independence. At the end of the Early Baghdad Abbasids period, Empress
Zoe Karbonopsina pressed for an armistice with Al-Muqtadir and arranged for the ransom of the Muslim prisoner while the Byzantine frontier was threatened by Bulgarians. This only added to Baghdad's disorder. Though despised by the people, Al-Muqtadir was again placed in power after upheavals. Al-Muqtadir was eventually slain outside the city gates, whereupon courtiers chose his brother
al-Qahir. He was even worse. Refusing to abdicate, he was blinded and cast into prison. His son
al-Radi took over only to experience a cascade of misfortune. Praised for his piety, he became the tool of the de facto ruling Minister,
Ibn Raik (
amir al-umara; 'Amir of the Amirs'). Ibn Raik held the reins of government and his name was joined with the Caliph's in public prayers. Around this period, the
Hanbalis, supported by popular sentiment, set up in fact a kind of 'Sunni inquisition'. Ar-Radi is commonly regarded as the last of the real Caliphs: the last to deliver orations at the Friday service, to hold assemblies, to commune with philosophers, to discuss the questions of the day, to take counsel on the affairs of State; to distribute
alms, or to temper the severity of cruel officers. Thus ended the Early Baghdad Abbasids. In the late mid-930s, the
Ikhshidids of Egypt carried the Arabic title "Wali" reflecting their position as governors on behalf of the Abbasids, The first governor (
Muhammad bin Tughj Al-Ikhshid) was installed by the Abbasid Caliph. They gave him and his descendants the Wilayah for 30 years. The last name Ikhshid is Soghdian for "prince". Also in the 930s,
'Alī ibn Būyah and his two younger brothers,
al-Hassan and
Aḥmad founded the
Būyid confederation. Originally a soldier in the service of the
Ziyārīds of
Ṭabaristān, 'Alī was able to recruit an army to defeat a Turkish general from
Baghdad named Yāqūt in 934. Over the next nine years the three brothers gained control of the remainder of the caliphate, while accepting the titular authority of the caliph in Baghdad. The Būyids made large territorial gains.
Fars and
Jibal were conquered. Central Iraq submitted in 945, before the Būyids took
Kermān (967),
Oman (967), the
Jazīra (979), Ṭabaristān (980), and
Gorgan (981). After this the Būyids went into slow decline, with pieces of the confederation gradually breaking off and local dynasties under their rule becoming
de facto independent.
Middle Baghdad Abbasids Early High Middle Ages ImageSize = width:800 height:75 PlotArea = width:720 height:55 left:65 bottom:20 AlignBars = justify Colors = id:time value:rgb(0.7,0.7,1) # id:period value:rgb(1,0.7,0.5) # id:span value:rgb(0.9,0.8,0.5) # id:age value:rgb(0.95,0.85,0.5) # id:era value:rgb(1,0.85,0.5) # id:eon value:rgb(1,0.85,0.7) # id:filler value:gray(0.8) # background bar id:black value:black Period = from:940 till:1094 TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:10 start:940 ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:1 start:940 PlotData = align:center textcolor:black fontsize:8 mark:(line, black) width:10 shift:(0,-3) from:940 till:944 color:era shift:(0,9) text:
Muttaqi from:944 till:946 color:age shift:(0,-15) text:
Mustakfi from:946 till:974 color:era text:
Muti from:974 till:991 color:age text:
Ta'i from:991 till:1031 color:era text:
Qadir from:1031 till:1075 color:age text:
Qa'im from:1075 till:1094 color:era text:
Muqtadi At the beginning of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids, the Caliphate had become of little importance. The
amir al-umara Bajkam contented himself with dispatching his secretary to Baghdad to assemble local dignitaries to elect a successor. The choice fell on
Al-Muttaqi. Bajkam was killed on a hunting party by marauding Kurds. In the ensuing anarchy in Baghdad, Ibn Raik persuaded the Caliph to flee to Mosul where he was welcomed by the Hamdanids. They assassinated Ibn Raik. Hamdanid
Nasir al-Dawla advanced on Baghdad, where mercenaries and well-organised Turks repelled them. Turkish general
Tuzun became
amir al-umara. The Turks were staunch Sunnis. A fresh conspiracy placed the Caliph in danger. Hamdanid troops helped ad-Daula escape to Mosul and then to Nasibin. Tuzun and the Hamdanid were stalemated. Al-Muttaqi was at
Raqqa, moving to Tuzun where he was deposed. Tuzun installed the blinded Caliph's cousin as successor, with the title of
Al-Mustakfi. With the new Caliph, Tuzun attacked the
Buwayhid dynasty and the
Hamdanids. Soon after, Tuzun died, and was succeeded by one of his generals, Abu Ja'far. The Buwayhids then attacked Baghdad, and Abu Ja'far fled into hiding with the Caliph. Buwayhid Sultan Muiz ud-Daula assumed command forcing the Caliph into abject submission to the Amir. Eventually, Al-Mustakfi was blinded and deposed. The city fell into chaos, and the Caliph's palace was looted. Once the Buwayhids controlled Baghdad,
Al-Muti became caliph. The office was shorn of real power and Shi'a observances were established. The Buwayhids held on Baghdad for over a century. Throughout the Buwayhid reign the Caliphate was at its lowest ebb, but was recognized religiously, except in
Iberia. Buwayhid Sultan
Mu'izz al-Dawla was prevented from raising a Shi'a Caliph to the throne by fear for his own safety, and fear of rebellion, in the capital and beyond. The next Caliph,
Al-Ta'i, reigned over factional strife in Syria among the Fatimids, Turks, and Carmathians. The Hideaway dynasty also fractured. The Abbasid borders were the defended only by small border states.
Baha' al-Dawla, the Buyid amir of Iraq, deposed al-Ta'i in 991 and proclaimed
al-Qadir the new caliph. During al-Qadir's Caliphate,
Mahmud of Ghazni looked after the empire. Mahmud of Ghazni, of Eastern fame, was friendly towards the Caliphs, and his victories in the Indian Empire were accordingly announced from the pulpits of Baghdad in grateful and glowing terms. Al-Qadir fostered the Sunni struggle against Shiʿism and outlawed heresies such as the
Baghdad Manifesto and the doctrine that the Quran was created. He outlawed the
Muʿtazila, bringing an end to the development of rationalist Muslim philosophy. During this and the next period,
Islamic literature, especially
Persian literature, flourished under the patronage of the Buwayhids. By 1000, the global Muslim population had climbed to about 4 percent of the world, compared to the Christian population of 10 percent. During
Al-Qa'im's reign, the Buwayhid ruler often fled the capital and the Seljuq dynasty gained power.
Toghrül overran Syria and Armenia. He then made his way into the Capital, where he was well-received both by chiefs and people. In
Bahrain, the Qarmatian state collapsed in
Al-Hasa. Arabia recovered from the Fatimids and again acknowledged the spiritual jurisdiction of the Abbasids.
Al-Muqtadi was honoured by the Seljuq Sultan
Malik-Shah I, during whose reign the Caliphate was recognized throughout the extending range of Seljuq conquest. The Sultan was critical of the Caliph's interference in affairs of state, but died before deposing the last of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids.
Late Baghdad Abbasids Late High Middle Ages ImageSize = width:800 height:75 PlotArea = width:720 height:55 left:65 bottom:20 AlignBars = justify Colors = id:time value:rgb(0.7,0.7,1) # id:period value:rgb(1,0.7,0.5) # id:span value:rgb(0.9,0.8,0.5) # id:age value:rgb(0.95,0.85,0.5) # id:era value:rgb(1,0.85,0.5) # id:eon value:rgb(1,0.85,0.7) # id:filler value:gray(0.8) # background bar id:black value:black id:lightgrey value:gray(0.9) Period = from:1094 till:1258 TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:10 start:1094 ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:1 start:1094 PlotData = Bar: align:center textcolor:black fontsize:8 mark:(line, black) width:10 shift:(0,-3) from:1094 till:1118 color:age text:
Mustazhir from:1118 till:1135 color:era text:
Mustarshid from:1135 till:1136 color:age shift:(0,-15) text:
Rashid from:1136 till:1160 color:era text:
Muqtafi from:1160 till:1170 color:age text:
Mustanjid from:1170 till:1180 color:era text:
Mustadi from:1180 till:1225 color:age text:
Nasir from:1225 till:1226 color:era shift:(0,-15) text:
Zahir from:1226 till:1242 color:age text:
Mustansir from:1242 till:1258 color:era text:
Musta'sim Bar:Crusades from:1095 till:1099 color:lightgrey text:
1st from:1147 till:1149 color:lightgrey text:
2nd from:1099 till:1187 color:lightgrey shift:(-40,-3) text:
Jerusalem from:1187 till:1192 color:lightgrey text:
3rd from:1202 till:1204 color:lightgrey text:
4th from:1217 till:1221 color:lightgrey text:
5th from:1228 till:1229 color:lightgrey text:
6th from:1248 till:1254 color:lightgrey text:
7th The Late Baghdad Abbasids reigned from the beginning of the
Crusades to the
Seventh Crusade. The first Caliph was
Al-Mustazhir. He was politically irrelevant, despite civil strife at home and the
First Crusade in Syria.
Raymond IV of Toulouse attempted to attack Baghdad, losing at the
Battle of Manzikert. The global Muslim population climbed to about 5 per cent as against the Christian population of 11 per cent by 1100.
Jerusalem was captured by crusaders who massacred its inhabitants. Preachers travelled throughout the caliphate proclaiming the tragedy and rousing men to recover the
Al-Aqsa Mosque compound from the
Franks (European Crusaders). Crowds of exiles rallied for war against the
infidel. Neither the Sultan nor the Caliph sent an army west. (emir of
Al-Hilla), plundered
Bosra and attacked Baghdad together with a young brother of the sultan,
Ghiyath ad-Din Mas'ud. Dubays was crushed by a Seljuq army under
Zengi, founder of the
Zengid dynasty. Mahmud's death was followed by a civil war between his son Dawud, his nephew Mas'ud and the atabeg Toghrul II. Zengi was recalled to the East, stimulated by the Caliph and Dubays, where he was beaten. The Caliph then laid siege to Mosul for three months without success, resisted by Mas'ud and Zengi. It was nonetheless a milestone in the caliphate's military revival. After the siege of Damascus (1134), Zengi undertook
operations in Syria. Al-Mustarshid attacked sultan Mas'ud of western Seljuq and was taken prisoner. He was later found murdered. His son,
Al-Rashid failed to gain independence from Seljuq Turks. Zengi, because of the murder of Dubays, set up a rival Sultanate. Mas'ud attacked; the Caliph and Zengi, hopeless of success, escaped to Mosul. The Sultan regained power, a council was held, the Caliph was deposed, and his uncle, son of
Al-Muqtafi, appointed as the new Caliph. Ar-Rashid fled to
Isfahan and was killed by Hashshashins. In Georgia, the population were temporarily divided into eight
tumens. By 1237 the Mongol Empire had subjugated most of Persia, excluding
Abbasid Iraq and
Ismaili strongholds, and all of
Afghanistan and
Kashmir.
Al-Musta'sim was the last Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad and is noted for his opposition to the rise of Shajar al-Durr to the Egyptian throne during the Seventh Crusade. To the east, Mongol forces under
Hulagu Khan swept through the
Transoxiana and
Khorasan.
Baghdad was sacked and the caliph deposed soon afterwards. The Mamluk sultans and Syria later appointed a powerless Abbasid Caliph in Cairo.
Caliph of Cairo (1261–1517) The "shadow" caliph of Cairo Late Middle Ages ImageSize = width:800 height:75 PlotArea = width:650 height:55 left:100 bottom:20 AlignBars = justify Colors = id:time value:rgb(0.7,0.7,1) # id:period value:rgb(1,0.7,0.5) # id:span value:rgb(0.9,0.8,0.5) # id:age value:rgb(0.95,0.85,0.5) # id:era value:rgb(1,0.85,0.5) # id:eon value:rgb(1,0.85,0.7) # id:filler value:gray(0.8) # background bar id:black value:black id:lightgrey value:gray(0.9) Period = from:1261 till:1517 TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:10 start:1261 ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:1 start:1261 PlotData = align:center textcolor:black fontsize:8 mark:(line, black) width:10 shift:(0,-3) Bar: from:1261 till:1262 color:era shift:(0,-15) text:
Al-Mustansir from:1262 till:1302 color:era text:Hakim from:1302 till:1340 color:era text:Mustakfi from:1340 till:1341 color:era shift:(0,-15) text:Wathiq from:1341 till:1352 color:era shift:(0,-25) text:Hakim II from:1352 till:1362 color:era text:Mu'tadid from:1362 till:1383 color:era shift:(0,-15) text:Mutawakkil from:1383 till:1386 color:era shift:(0,-25 )text:Wathiq II from:1386 till:1389 color:era text:
Mu'tasim from:1389 till:1406 color:era shift:(0,-15) text:Mutawakkil from:1406 till:1414 color:era shift:(0,-25) text:Musta'in from:1414 till:1441 color:era text:Mu'tadid II from:1441 till:1451 color:era shift:(0,-15) text:Mustakfi II from:1451 till:1455 color:era shift:(0,-25)text:Qa'im from:1455 till:1479 color:era text:Mustanjid from:1479 till:1497 color:era shift:(0,-15) text:Mutawakkil II from:1497 till:1508 color:era shift:(0,-25) text:Mustamsik from:1508 till:1517 color:era text:
Mutawakkil III Bar:Crusades/War from:1270 till:1270 color:lightgrey shift:(0,20) text:
8th Crusade from:1271 till:1272 color:lightgrey shift:(0,10) text:
9th Crusade The Abbasid "shadow" caliph of
Cairo reigned under the tutelage of the
Mamluk sultans and nominal rulers used to legitimize the actual rule of the Mamluk sultans. All the Cairene Abbasid caliphs who preceded or succeeded
Al-Musta'in were spiritual heads lacking any temporal power. Al-Musta'in was the only Cairo-based Abbasid caliph to even briefly hold political power.
Al-Mutawakkil III was the last "shadow" caliph. In 1517, Ottoman sultan Selim I defeated the Mamluk Sultanate, and made Egypt part of the Ottoman Empire. == Fatimid Caliphate ==